These changes lead to in an impaired matrix integrity as measured by a diminished glycosaminoglycan content of the tissue [2]. Even after a follow-up period of 10 weeks matrix synthesis is still inhibited [3]. The in vitro experiments mimic the natural joint haemorrhage, as 4 days is considered to be the natural evacuation time in humans. These effects were confirmed

by canine in vivo experiments. Injections of autologous blood decreased matrix synthesis and content, and enhanced release of matrix components. The effects persisted for a prolonged period of time despite an apparently ineffective repair activity [4]. However, finally repair activity prevailed and cartilage damage vanished [3]. Preliminary results of recent studies demonstrated that sufficient repeated joint bleeds finally lead to persisting

cartilage damage (ongoing work of van Meegeren). Clearly the effects in dogs were less severe than in vitro. see more It was demonstrated that blood was cleared from the canine joint Y-27632 nmr much quicker than generally observed in humans. After injection of a maximum amount of blood in the canine knee joint, the volume of blood decreased to less than 5% within 48 hours [5]. In vitro it was found that exposure to a concentration of at least 10% for more than 2 days was needed to maintain the irreversible adverse effects [6]. Disturbance of matrix turnover in the long-term is considered to be caused by apoptosis of the chondrocyte. Inhibition of caspases, involved in the apoptotic process, results in normalization of matrix synthesis [7]. Since the low proliferating chondrocyte is the only cell type of cartilage and is responsible for production and maintenance of the extracellular matrix, apoptosis of chondrocytes will result in a long-lasting, if not permanent, impaired matrix turnover. In that condition, cartilage will be unable to handle normal loading

resulting in further damage of the tissue, as supported by canine in vivo studies [8]. In Pazopanib vitro studies revealed that the combination of mononuclear cells (MNC) and red blood cells (RBC) present in whole blood can have the same effect on their own as whole blood. A possible explanation for the irreversible damage by this combination is the conversion of hydrogen peroxide, produced by IL-1 activated monocytes/macrophages, and a catalyst in the form of iron supplied by RBC, into hydroxyl radicals. Scavenging these hydroxyl radicals with e.g. dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) diminishes inhibition of matrix synthesis [9]. Apoptosis of chondrocytes can be inhibited by addition of IL-10 [10]. Most recently it appeared that IL-4 has even more protective effects on blood-induced cartilage damage than IL-10 (manuscript in preparation). It has been reported that IL-4 and IL-10 alone and in combination are able to inhibit inflammation in arthritic conditions [11]. This merges the direct degenerative activity of blood on cartilage with the inflammation driven activity of repeated joint bleeds.