Several common themes emerge in all these test systems especially involving oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, covalent binding, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Remarkably, Pexidartinib ic50 all of these test systems seem to have moderately strong predictive value

for IDILI.9-13 A unifying picture emerges in which IDILI drugs at high doses used in preclinical studies seem to generate a hazard in hepatocytes and their organelles, which itself may or may not be lethal (Fig. 1). One could argue that all these changes simply reflect the fact that drugs which cause IDILI are likely to be metabolized in hepatocytes and induce covalent-bound haptens that elicit an adaptive immune response in genetically susceptible individuals with the relevant HLA haplotype.

The hazards observed in various test systems may simply be a surrogate for reactive immunogenic metabolites. The alternative view is that the hazards may actually contribute to the development of IDILI. Certainly in situations in which IDILI is not mediated by adaptive immunity, one can envision the gradual accumulation of hazard-induced damage to mitochondria reaching some critical threshold for injury, as exemplified selleck products by the rapid development of damage due to acetaminophen or the progressively longer latency seen with valproate, nucleosides, and amiodarone. However, few other examples can be identified and, as noted above, the preponderance of evidence has recently redirected the field towards the adaptive immune system. The hazards induced by exposure of hepatocytes

may still be extremely relevant. Hepatocyte stress may generate danger signals that costimulate the development Enzalutamide cell line of an adaptive immune response directed at haptenized peptides14 or neoantigens such as hapten-free peptides misdirected to the wrong HLA molecule.15 Furthermore, the stress induced by hepatocyte exposure to the hazard of reactive metabolites may sensitize hepatocytes to T-cell or cytokine-mediated killing, unmasking or worsening immune-mediated killing. This is exemplified by drug-induced redox perturbations and oxidative stress sensitizing to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) survival pathways at various steps from IKK to p50 p65-mediated transcription.16, 17 Another key feature of IDILI is the phenomenon of adaptation (Fig. 1). Nearly all IDILI drugs that rarely induce severe acute liver injury much more frequently induce asymptomatic anicteric injury that disappears with continued drug administration. Again, there are two ways to look at this: first, adaptation reflects the development of immune tolerance.