1 AR is due to host immune responses towards antigens on the transplanted kidney that are foreign to the host, most importantly the human leucocyte antigens (HLA).2 Incompatible HLA can be recognized by alloreactive T cells through antigen-presenting cells (APC) either of donor organ origin (direct allorecognition) or in recipient host (indirect allorecognition).2,3 Effector host CD4+ and CD8+ T cells then home to the graft where they produce inflammatory cytokines and mediate direct destruction

of graft tissue.4 A number of products of cellular infiltration of the kidney have been studied as potential urinary biomarkers of rejection, including urinary Granzyme B and CD103.5 Other cell types in the kidney are also involved in the rejection process CAL-101 in vivo and may be useful potential markers for rejection. In particular, tubular epithelial cells (TEC) are able to https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Y-27632.html respond to inflammation and provide a rich source of potentially useful biomarkers into the urine for monitoring kidney function following transplant. A biomarker is defined as ‘a cellular, biochemical, molecule or genetic alteration by which a biological process can be recognized and/or monitor and has diagnostic and prognostic

utility’.6 Biomarkers may be membrane molecules (or fragments) shed following cleavage by proteolytic enzymes (either expressed by TEC or by infiltrating leucocytes at the local injury site) or secreted molecules such as cytokines. Such biomarkers may either be constitutively expressed or released by enhanced proteolytic activity present during inflammation, or alternatively, biomarkers may be absent in steady state, but

selectively upregulated during inflammation.7 In addition, oxidative stress, bacterial infection or inflammation, may induce alternate protein synthesis pathways, or induce alternate mRNA splicing, resulting in the secretion of ‘cell-associated’ molecules and peptides into biological fluids.7 Proteins associated with exosomes (100 nm lipid-bound particles) have also been discovered in urine8 and may provide an additional source selleck chemical of biomarkers.9,10 Detection of protein biomarkers generally involves a colorimetric or fluorescent system such as ELISA, Luminex® Beads and flow cytometry. Recently, proteomics have provided a comprehensive protein profile for analysing graft status. The proteomic approach used electrophoresis or chromatography techniques and mass spectrometry of graft biopsies, plasma and urine. Sigdel et al., in a comparative analysis of AR patients’ urine proteomic profiles with those of healthy controls and stable graft function established by Adachi et al.11 and Gonzalez et al.