(A) ATP levels in the culture supernatant. ATP concentrations were determined and plotted against the incubation period. (B) ATP levels in the bacterial pellet. Total ATP levels in the Selleck GS-9973 bacterial pellet were normalized against OD600nm of each culture and plotted against the incubation time period. (C) Ratio of quantity of ATP in the culture supernatant to that of the bacterial cells. Acinetobacter junii cultures were spun down and separated into culture supernatant and cell pellet. ATP levels in each fraction were determined. The ratio of ATP from supernatant to that of bacterial cells from the same volumes

of cultures was plotted against the incubation period. Results are the average of 4 experiments and error bars represent standard deviations. Discussion We report here that ATP can be detected Dactolisib mw in the culture supernatant of a wide variety of bacterial species including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria of laboratory and clinical strains (Figure 2 and Table 5). The concentrations of extracellular ATP (from several nanomolar to several hundred nanomolar) were

much lower than the 1–5 mM reported for intracellular ATP [6–9], and total extracellular ATP represents up to 3 to 5% of that in bacterial culture (Figure 4). One LOXO-101 research buy noticeable exception is Acinetobacter junii AJ4970 that had ratios of extracellular to intracellular ATP > 0.5 (Figure 7C), suggesting that a significant portion of total ATP was present in the culture supernatant of this

bacterial strain. The extracellular ATP is unlikely an artifact due to any contamination of culture supernatant by bacterial cells since filtration did not reduce the ATP level (Figure 1). However, Adenosine triphosphate we have yet to establish the mechanism of how ATP was released into the culture medium. The simplest explanation is that ATP was released from dead and lysed bacteria. This explanation is plausible for low extracellular ATP levels when total extracellular ATP is less than 5% of the intracellular ATP levels; however, it cannot explain the high extracellular ATP levels observed with AJ4970 which has comparable quantities of extracellular ATP compared to the intracellular ATP (Figure 7C). In addition we have shown that live bacteria of both E. coli and Salmonella (but not dead bacteria or culture supernatant) are able to actively deplete ATP at approximately 5 μM/hr or 83 nM/min (Figure 5A and B) – a very high rate compared to the peak extracellular ATP concentration of 15 nM to 35 nM/OD600nm in E. coli and Salmonella cultures (Figure 4). Thus the quantity of ATP released into culture supernatant is likely to be much higher than that detected in the supernatant. Genetic analysis showed that ATP release is linked to cytochrome bo oxidases and thus argues against the bacterial cell death and lysis as the sole source of the extracellular ATP (Figure 4).