3). However, we additionally detected significantly higher anthocyanin concentration in cool-cultivated plants when we compared them to warm-cultivated plants in a corresponding growth stage for small heads (Table 1 and Fig. 3). Nevertheless, this accumulation in cool-cultivated small head seems to only have been transient: As mature heads, cool-cultivated

plants have a much lower anthocyanin concentration than as small heads. Small heads that had been subjected to low temperature had a 59% higher anthocyanin concentration than warm-cultivated small heads. Regarding mature heads, first warm- than cool-cultivated plants only had a 17% higher anthocyanin concentration than the corresponding warm-cultivated plants. The first mentioned difference was significant while the latter was not (Table 1). This indicates that the low temperature Alectinib cost regime was more stressful to plants in an early than in a later growth stage. When temperature is low, the light intercepted by plants and supplied to the electron transport chain of the photosynthetic apparatus in chloroplast thylakoid membranes may eventually

become over-excessive because the enzymatic part of photosynthesis is slowed down. This may lead to over-reduction selleck screening library of the electron carriers, over-excitation of the photosystems, and eventually to the formation of ROS (Edreva, 2005 and Havaux and Kloppstech, 2001). Neill and Gould (2003) suggest that cyanidin-3-O  -(6″-O  -malonyl)-glucoside acts as both antioxidant and light attenuator in Lollo Rosso lettuce: Accumulation of cyanidin glycoside in epidermal cell vacuoles can alleviate the oxidative load in photosynthetically active cells by absorbing part of the surplus photons that would otherwise be funnelled into the electron transport chains and possibly produce ROS. On the other hand, they can act as antioxidants in the cytosol of photosynthetic active cells and counteract ROS Resminostat formation

( Neill & Gould, 2003). According to Edreva (2005) different components of the photosynthetic apparatus produce different types of ROS when over-excited- superoxide anion radicals (O2-) being the “energy outlet” of the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. Cyanidin-3-O  -(6″-O  -malonyl)-glucoside is a very effective scavenger of O2- ( Neill & Gould, 2003). Assuming a connection between ROS production by over-excited electron transport chains and anthocyanin accumulation, this would imply a lower oxidative load in cells of mature heads than in small heads, in our experiment. The reason for this may lie in their head architecture: The small heads had only developed 4 true leaves when subjected to low temperature while the larger ones already had 17 leaves and head formation had started. With advanced head formation, more and more leaves are shading each other, i.e. larger percentages of biomass are shielded from direct light. In these leaves less energy is funneled into the electron transport chain and less ROS are formed.