3). The ability of Mϕ to reduce T-cell responses has been documented for many years.32 In tumour models, this is thought to contribute to tumour escape from immunosurveillance, but it is unlikely that this represents a normal physiological expression of this process. In inflammation stimulated by infection, restricting T-cell proliferation within the tissue could have a role simply by sparing finite metabolic resources for other effector cells that are present. Rapid T-cell division is highly dependent on local glucose33 and activated Mϕ also consume glucose and other sources of metabolic PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition energy at a high rate.34,35 Therefore, limiting proliferation may be a form of immune system triage at the site of

inflammation. Another possibility is that restricting T-cell activation prevents the differentiation of antigen-specific T cells within tissues. Segregating the environment in which T cells differentiate, from that in which they exercise effector function, could reduce the generation of T-cell effector cells that can be activated by autoantigens. At a site of acute inflammation, Mϕ will be processing large amounts of damaged normal tissue that might lead to an increased risk of local autoimmunity. It is not, however, the case that T-cell immunity is entirely shut down in this inflammatory microenvironment.

Our demonstration that T cells removed from the presence of Mϕ can resume proliferation (Fig. 2) shows that T cells that traffic away from the inflammatory environment will still be able to contribute selleck chemicals llc to the pool of circulating activated antigen-specific cells. This local immune response could still serve to amplify T-cell responses and support the production of immunological memory. In terms of Mϕ function, our data suggest that a lack of TNFR1 signalling impedes the development of Mϕ with the capacity to inhibit T cells. This critical role for TNFR1 in the generation of these cells also suggests TNFR1 may be important to the generation of MDSC in tumours. Therefore, our study throws light on other previously unexplained findings: that in a model of metastasizing

lung carcinoma, although tumours initially expand at normal rates, in TNFR1−/− mice, metastases regress after 21 days.36 Also in TNFR1−/− mice and mice treated with TNFR1−/− bone marrow,37 there Niclosamide is a reduced tumour burden in a model of colorectal carcinoma. We suggest that this may relate to a failure to generate functional MDSC. However, other factors also remain important, because the efficacy of TNF-α blockade, which has been used as a therapy in late-stage ovarian carcinoma, maps at least partially to a defect in TNFR1 signalling to T cells.38 The lack of TNFR1 was also associated with a lack of PGE2 production. It has been previously demonstrated that PGE2 is required for MDSC maturation in vivo.30,39 PGE2 can also modulate the function of dendritic cells as APCs, and this effect depends on expression of EP2 or EP4 by the dendritic cell.