In this context, Kim and coworkers 73 demonstrated the expression

of TLR2 and TLR4 in skin samples obtained from preterm delivered babies by immunohistochemistry. As Saracatinib manufacturer for function of TLR in fetus, studies of mouse and human fetal cells show stimulation of fetal intestinal cells or fetal monocyte with LPS results in production of chemokines and cytokines.74,75 These findings indicate that fetal cells are also capable of recognizing microbial products and participate in innate immune defense in the case of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity; although the expressions of other PRRs in various fetal tissues/organs still need to be elucidated. Recent studies from our laboratory have shown that viral infection of the mouse placenta, which does not induce preterm labor, has a detrimental effect on fetal development.59 A striking finding was the observation of a general inflammatory fetal condition, very similar to those

observed in the human condition known as fetal inflammatory response syndrome (FIRS).76 This inflammatory condition was present in the fetus in spite of undetectable buy Tanespimycin viral titers. Morphologic examination of the fetus reveled changes in the brain, heart and lungs. This data suggests that although the virus may not reach the fetus, an inflammatory process at the placenta will affect the normal development of the fetus, with potential after birth severe consequences. Recent clinical studies have linked TLRs to pregnancy disorders. In the following section, we will discuss some of the most relevant observations. Intrauterine infection and subsequent chorioaminionitis (CAM) are known to be among the most important causes of preterm delivery.1 We evaluated the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in chorioamniotic membranes in spontaneous labor at term and in preterm parturition that are associated with CAM. TLR2 and TLR4 mRNA expression were significantly higher in membranes from women at

term with spontaneous labor than women not in labor. TLR2 MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit expression in chorioamniotic membranes was significantly higher in patients with CAM than those without CAM. The expression of TLR2 was also restricted to the basal surface of amniotic epithelial cells in non-CAM preterm, labor whereas in CAM cases, diffuse and strong positive staining for the entire cytoplasm of epithelium was observed.39 On the other hand, Rindsjo et al.77 demonstrated that TLR2 expression in trophoblast was decreased in patients with CAM compared to those without CAM. These findings suggest that the response to infection varies in the different parts of the maternal–fetal interface. However, we have to take into consideration the possibility that these variations might be the result of technical variations among study groups. As for TLR4, Kumazaki et al.