Such cooperative catabolism has been reported for the microbial degradation of chloronitrobenzenes and atrazine (Park et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2005). Further analysis of the enrichment culture media in this study could lead to the isolation of novel microorganisms

MAPK Inhibitor Library concentration that promoted metabolism in the latter half of the DON-degradation pathway. The second difference is the ability to express DON-degradation activities under preincubation conditions. The Gram-positive strains needed preincubating in DON-containing media for maximal expression of degradation activities, suggesting that they possess some regulatory system for the expression of DON-degrading enzyme or DON-uptake machineries. Together with the finding that Gram-positive

strains can assimilate DON, we postulate that the Gram-positive strains are native DON-degraders whose DON-assimilating abilities play a key role in their survival in nature. By contrast, the Gram-negative strains might be casual degraders, given that they did not assimilate DON or need preincubating in DON-containing media for expression of DON-degrading activities. Note that it was not on mineral media containing DON as carbon source but on complete media such as diluted NA and R2A agar plates that we isolated DDBs. Use of the complete media in our study resulted in the successful isolation of the casual DON-degraders. The third difference is the DON metabolites produced. HPLC analysis revealed that the two Gram types produced different DON metabolites, suggesting differences in the DON-degradation C59 wnt clinical trial pathways. The identification of DON metabolites is necessary for understanding the bacterial DON-degradation pathways. We found that all the strains produced Anidulafungin (LY303366) 3-epi-DON as an intermediate of DON degradation, suggesting that the DON-degradation pathways of the two Gram types of bacteria were in part identical. We are particularly

interested in the enzyme responsible for the transformation of DON to 3-epi-DON. This unique enzyme, which only the aerobic DDBs possess, might be one of the reasons why the bacteria belong to phylogenetically restricted groups. Our results that the aerobic DDBs form two phylogenetically distant bacterial groups and that the degradation phenotypes differ between the Gram types suggest the independent evolution of two aerobic DON-degradation mechanisms. Our findings may also be useful for analysing the divergency of DON-metabolizing enzyme genes as well as their significance in evolution. This work was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (Research project for ensuring food safety from farm to table MT-3209). We thank M. Imai for technical assistance. We also thank H. Nakagawa (National Food Research Institute) for technical advice about the enrichment medium. “
“In Actinomyces oris T14V, sortase SrtC1 mediates the assembly of type 1 fimbriae.