The disease process results in pancreatic tissue apoptosis or necrosis depending on the severity of the insult. Clinical worsening or lack of improvement may be the result of infection of necrotic tissue or an ongoing leak secondary to disrupted ductal epithelium from the inflammatory process.[1-4] Chronic pancreatitis can also result

in pancreatic duct leaks as can pancreatic trauma. Leaks occurring in chronic pancreatitis generally occur as a result of ductal obstruction from inflammatory Selleckchem AUY-922 strictures or intraductal stones. Pancreatic leaks or fistulas are traditionally classified as internal or external.[3, 5] External leaks represent pancreaticocutaneous fistulas and are most typically iatrogenic in etiology. Dabrafenib nmr Internal leaks present in multiple different forms and include pancreatic ascites, pleural effusions, and pseudocysts among others.[4, 6] The prognosis and management of pancreatic leaks varies based on the clinical manifestations of the leak. Up to 40% of patients with acute pancreatitis will develop some type of acute fluid collection.[7] However, only a small percentage of these patients will go on to develop a true fistula.

The severity of the insult determines the likelihood of a fistula developing. Gallstone pancreatitis is the most common cause of severe acute pancreatitis; however, any cause of pancreatitis can result in a ductal leak. Walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN) is one situation that frequently involves a ductal leak. In numerous studies, WOPN patients have been shown to have disconnected duct syndrome

(DDS) in 35–70% of cases. It is unclear 上海皓元 whether this ductal disruption is the cause of or a result of the WOPN.[5, 8, 9] The main determinants of the clinical manifestations of ductal leaks include the leak’s location within the gland, the size of the leak, and the body’s ability to contain the leak’s output. Patients range from being completely asymptomatic to experiencing severe manifestations such as sepsis or unrelenting pain and other serious complications from resultant fluid collections. Signs and symptoms are highly variable, but can include nausea, pain, tachycardia, ileus and hypotension.[10, 11] The severity of the pancreatitis that causes or results from the leak has the most bearing on the patient’s initial symptoms and clinical course. Later on, the characteristics of the leak and associated complications play a greater role. The most classic outcome of a pancreatic duct leak is pseudocyst formation, but other manifestations include walled-off pancreatic necrosis, pancreatic ascites, internal and external fistulas, pleural effusions and even pericardial effusions (Table 1).