The Mma Bana study from Botswana randomly allocated 560 women at 26–34 weeks’ gestation, with CD4 cell counts >200 cells/μL to receive either lopinavir/ritonavir plus zidovudine/lamivudine (PI group) or abacavir/zidovudine/lamivudine (NRTI group). The PTD rates were significantly higher in the PI group (21.4% vs. 11.8%; P = 0.003) [101]. A second study, the Kesho Bora Study randomly allocated 824 women at 28–36 weeks’ gestation, again with CD4 cell counts >200 cells/μL to receive lopinavir/ritonavir and zidovudine/lamivudine or zidovudine monotherapy twice

daily plus a single dose of nevirapine at the onset of labour. There was no difference in the PTD rate between the two groups (13% with PI vs. 11% with zidovudine monotherapy/single-dose nevirapine) [102]. The randomized studies above are two of few studies that selleck compound have been able to look at individual PIs. One additional analysis from the APR of 955 live births exposed to lopinavir/ritonavir reported a PTD rate of 13.4% [103]. A retrospective study from the UK reported a PTD rate of 10% in 100 women taking ritonavir-boosted atazanavir in pregnancy, of whom 67% had conceived on their regimen [79]. The data regarding HAART, individual components of HAART and PTD remain conflicting. Some studies suggest that PIs, in particular ritonavir-boosted PIs, are associated with an increased

risk of PTD but this is not confirmed by others. There is a need for a randomized study of sufficient power to explore these issues further and the Promoting Maternal and Infant Survival Everywhere (PROMISE) study (NCT01061151), with 6000 women either randomly allocated to a PI-based combination selleck screening library regimen or zidovudine monotherapy will hopefully provide some answers to these important questions. 5.2.4 No routine dose alterations are recommended for ARVs during pregnancy if used at adult licensed doses with the

exception of darunavir, which should be dosed twice daily. Grading: 1C Consider third-trimester pheromone TDM particularly if combining tenofovir and atazanavir. Grading: 1C If dosing off licence, consider switching to standard dosing throughout pregnancy or regular TDM. Grading: 1C Physiological changes that occur even during the first trimester of pregnancy may affect the kinetics of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination, thereby affecting the drug dosing. Gastrointestinal transit time becomes prolonged; body water and fat increase throughout gestation and there are accompanying increases in cardiac output, ventilation, and liver and renal blood flow; plasma protein concentrations decrease, notably albumin and α1 acid glycoprotein; renal sodium reabsorption increases; and changes occur in the metabolic enzyme pathway in the liver, including changes in cytochrome P450. Caution should be exercised if women fall pregnant on unlicensed doses and consideration given to performing TDM to assess trough levels, or reverting to licensed dosing, often twice per day, during pregnancy.