This could reflect differences in the antigens used for vaccination because the secreted proteins contain more LDNF than the native complex (99). Thus, the complex role that carbohydrate antigens may play in immunity against helminths should continue to be explored. While the abundant glycans in schistosomes may or may not be protective

targets of immunity, it is possible that other selleck inhibitor less abundant, but more effective, glycan epitopes remain undiscovered. As discussed above for protein vaccine candidates, the most abundant and immunogenic glycan antigens that are ubiquitously expressed in all stages (larvae, adults and eggs) may not be the most efficacious. Glycan expression appears to be developmentally regulated (60), and there is evidence of stage-specific glycans, such as the cercarial glycolipid structures (100). Therefore, there is a need to identify carbohydrates specific to Fulvestrant mouse schistosomula which, paradoxically, is the stage for which the least data are available (60). One of the most promising methods to analyse the carbohydrate portion of the immunome is the use of glycan arrays, and several glycan arrays have been developed, which differ in the carbohydrates present or their attachment to the solid surface (101). One

array is available to participating researchers from the Consortium for Functional Glycomics (http://www.functionalglycomics.org) and consists of hundreds of defined and biologically important glycan structures printed on a glass surface in a micro-array format. The array can be Thymidylate synthase incubated with a variety of glycan-binding proteins in small quantities (0·1–2·0 μg) to determine their carbohydrate specificities with low background levels (101). For determining antigenic glycans, arrays can be probed with monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies, and for studying the developing schistosomula, the use

of the previously described ASC probes is ideal. The advantage of the arrays is that the glycan-binding profile of an antibody sample can be determined relatively simply, and it does not bias towards the abundant carbohydrates. A potential limitation is the finite number of carbohydrates present on the array, compared with the vast number likely to comprise a complete glycome. However, each version of the array released has had an increasing number of glycans printed as the number of natural and synthetic structures available grows, from 200 when initially available and published (101) to 611 on the latest version (5.0). One recent study used the Consortium array to investigate vaccination of lambs against H. contortus with different adjuvants (102), by probing with post-vaccination serum. The researchers identified a novel H.