We compared our results to a female sex worker study population this website in Kigali, Rwanda (unpublished observation) and with the results from Ryckman et al.23 in pregnant women in the US. Table I illustrates the differences in cytokine and chemokine detection between the three populations. A number of cytokines were below the detection limit for the Belgian population compared to low level in the Rwandan and US samples. In addition to the aim of selecting a panel of cytokines for the multiplex, we explored the presence or absence of soluble factors in endocervical secretions (ECS) (dilution with 1 mL PBS)

compared to CVL (10 mL saline). No major differences between ECS and CVL samples were seen except that MIP-1a was not detected in the CVL

and a few factors were present in a slightly higher concentration in the ECS than in the CVL samples (Fig. 1). In the next few years, European researchers aim to standardize a list of soluble factors to be measured Belnacasan order in future clinical trials carried out by European researchers and collaborators. Newly defined HIV protective factors in the literature, such as Trappin-2/Elafin, MIP3-α, IFN-β and Beta defensins, have not yet been included in multiplex assays. It may be worth considering incorporating these factors in clinical trials, though laboratory work is more labor intensive and therefore more expensive. The anti-viral activity of MIP3-α has been recognized by several authors and can be an interesting marker to study antiviral activity of the upper reproductive tract as opposed to the lower genital tract because of absence of production for vaginal cells in vitro.24 Finally, IFN-β increases through toll like receptor signaling and this leads to an antiviral state for Herpes simplex virus PDK4 (HSV)-2, an important factor for HIV transmission.25 Care should also be taken that a specimen is representative of the area sampled. If certain anatomical areas are expected to give different results then these should all be sampled. For example, vaginal fluid accumulates in

the posterior fornix of the vagina, and samples from the posterior fornix may give different results than samples obtained from the lateral vaginal wall. Samples from different anatomical areas could either be pooled or could be assayed separately, depending on the research questions.26 Several technical challenges have impeded the uptake, performance and interpretation of cell-mediated immunity research of the female genital mucosa. The biggest challenge has been the difficulty in collecting a sufficient number of viable cells. But also contamination with red blood cells (RBCs) and the absence of standardization of collection method.27 In addition, the complexity of setting up flow cytometry or accessibility to liquid nitrogen facilities for shipping in remote, resource poor settings is particularly difficult.