So, understanding the changes in the reproductive biology of snails infected with A. cantonensis AZD6244 in vivo is essential for developing effective methods against the spread of human eosinophilic meningoencephalitis. However, it is surprising that studies of the reproductive activity of A. cantonensis-infected snails

have not yet been conducted, since this parasite has great importance to public health and the response to infection is highly variable among snail species infected by different helminths ( Tunholi et al., 2011). To shed light on this subject, the present study analyzed for the first time, the changes in the reproductive biology of Biomphalaria glabrata caused by infection by A. cantonensis during its prepatent period (3 weeks of infection) ( Guilhon and Gaalon, 1969), using the parameters total number of eggs, number of egg masses, number of eggs/mass, number of eggs/snail, percentage of viable eggs, and galactogen content in albumen gland, as well as the histological status of the gonad (ovotestis of infected snails). The different mechanisms possibly related to this phenomenon are also discussed. The snails were kept in aquariums containing 1500 ml of dechlorinated water, to which 0.5 g of CaCO3 was added. Polystyrene plates measuring ±2 cm2 were placed inside the aquariums to serve as substrate for egg laying. The snails were fed with dehydrated lettuce leaves

(Lactuca sativa L.) ad click here libitum. Six groups were formed: three control groups (uninfected) and three treatment groups (infected). Each aquarium contained 10 snails, reared Adenosine in the laboratory from hatching to be certain of their age and sexual maturity. The entire experiment was conducted in duplicate, using a total of 120 snails. Third-stage larvae (L3) of A. cantonensis, obtained

from specimens of Achatina fulica collected from Olinda, Pernambuco, Brazil (8°1′0″S/34°51′0″W, altitude 16 m) in 2008, in the area surrounding the home of a human patient diagnosed with eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, were inoculated in Rattus norvegicus in the Laboratório Nacional de Referência em Malacologia Médica and Laboratório de Patologia do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz, RJ, Brazil), where the cycle is maintained. The first-stage larva (L1) utilized in this study were obtained from this experimental cycle maintained in the mentioned laboratories. The feces of parasitized R. norvergicus were collected to obtain the larvae by the technique of Baermann ( Willcox and Coura, 1989). After processing the fecal samples, specimens of B. glabrata (8–12 mm) at 90 days old on average were exposed individually to approximately 1200 L1 larvae ( Yousif and Lammler, 1977). After 48 h the snails were transferred to the aquariums. The polystyrene plates were removed from the aquariums and the numbers of egg masses and eggs laid were counted under a stereoscopic microscope on alternate days until three weeks after infection.

IBTC protected against MAP-inhibition of AChE and BChE in human erythrocyte ghosts (Fig. 5A and B). Treatment with MAP plus IBTC (at 10, 25, 50, and 100 μM) resulted in significantly increased cholinesterase activity compared to MAP alone (Fig. 5A and B). IBTC also significantly (p < 0.05) reactivated the AChE and BChE enzyme activities at concentrations of 10, 25, 50, and 100 μM

( Fig. 6A and B) compared to MAP alone. Since different enantiomers of methamidophos can bind to Ser203, Sp and Rp we performed docking studies with both Sp (SGX) and Rp (SGR) enantiomers of MAP-inhibited AChE from Mus musculus (PDB code: 2jge) ( Fig. 7). In the Rp conformation of methamidophos, IBTC was located in the active site between the peripheral anionic site (PAS) (Tyr124) and the internal anionic site (Tyr341). The binding energy was −9.2 kcal/mol for the Rp enantiomer. The thiocarbonyl group was 7.707 angstroms from the phosphate of SGR203, and the hydrazinic nitrogen http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Vorinostat-saha.html of the thiosemicarbazone function was 2.873 Å from the carboxylic oxygen of residue Asp74 and 3.305 Å from the oxygen of residue Tyr341. The terminal thioamidic nitrogen hydrogen bonded with residue Tyr124 of the peripheral anionic site. The other fragment of the molecule

was located close to the internal anionic site and stabilized by hydrogen bonds with residues Thr83 (nitrogen of the indole group) and Tyr337 (hydrogen bond with the amidic oxygen and the iminic nitrogen present on the thiosemicarbazone function). Only one cation–Pi interaction occurred between IBTC and the enzyme active Belnacasan clinical trial site, which was between the aromatic ring from the terminal thioamidic function and phosphate of the SER203. In the Sp conformation of methamidophos, similar to the Rp enantiomer of the serine modified by MAP, IBTC was stabilized in the active site between the peripheral anionic site (PAS) (Tyr124) and the internal anionic site (Tyr341). The binding energy was −8.95 kcal/mol.

The thiocarbonyl group was 6.311 Å from the phosphate of Amisulpride SGX203 and the hydrazinic nitrogen of the thiosemicarbazone function was 2.818 Å from the carboxylic oxygen of residue Asp74 and 3.271 Å from the oxygen of residue Tyr341. In this conformation (SGX), the sulfur group was closer to the phosphate of the modified serine than in the SGR conformation. The aromatic ring from the terminal thioamidic function was stabilized in a hydrophobic region between the PAS (Tyr337 and Tyr341) and the acyl binding pocket (Phe338). The amidic oxygen formed a hydrogen bond with residue Tyr337 as well as with the iminic nitrogen. There was also a hydrogen bond between residue Thr87 and the iminic nitrogen. Pi interactions did not directly occur with the molecule. One purpose of our study was to investigate the potential toxic properties of IBTC, a compound that has been investigated in many biological models of oxidative stress. In our previous study (Barcelos et al.

All intervals are also documented in Fig. 3(B–F) and Fig. 4. Maximum absolute fluorescence intensity values of nematocysts increased with high significance (p = 0.000) over time from about 129 i.u (mean value) after 7 h ( Fig. 3B) to 230 i.u. after 48 and 72 h ( Fig. 3D, E). After 96 h, the nematocysts fluorescense values decreased

significantly ( Table 1, Fig. 3F). The percentage selleck compound of nematocysts with a fluorescence intensity of 255 i.u. or higher was greatest after 48 and 72 h (55% and 51%, respectively) and also decreased after 96 h (27%) ( Fig. 4A). 7 h after feeding, no nematocysts with fluorescence intensities higher or equal to 255 i.u. were observed. Similarly, the ratiometric values (Table 1, Fig. 4B) indicate a significant increase after 24 h after feeding, with an additional highly significant increase after 48 h. After 96 h, they decrease (with low significance p ≤ 0.05) compared to the values after 72 h. The animal investigated after 5 days starvation as control also revealed kleptocnides, which did not show a high fluorescence (no ratiometric values taken here). Ageladine A is a fluorescent marker that allows in vivo staining of complete and living animals or tissues. Galunisertib mw Its advantage compared to other dyes indicating pH values, such as BCECF or Lysosensor, is

its large pH range and its ability to penetrate cellular membranes quickly and easily, allowing the fast staining of entire animals. Bickmeyer (2012) demonstrated methods for the calculation of tissue pH values and showed its ability to highlight regions with low intracellular pH in cnidarians and plathelminthes. The present study presents a comparative analysis of pH changes

by comparing fluorescence intensities without calibration procedures. This is the first study to apply this dye on living gastropods, taking advantage of its high penetration abilities. It clarifies a long-standing question regarding how aeolids process incorporated SPTBN5 nematocysts rendering them capable for discharge and therefore usable for defence. The tests on unstained Aiptasia spec. and A. stephanieae clearly indicated that no relevant autofluorescence occurred in nematocysts and cnidosacs. Analyses of both species prior to the specific experiments gave evidence that nematocysts in situ exhibit various fluorescence intensities after staining. The presence of exclusively high fluorescing nematocysts in acontia, which are the defensive structures of Aiptasia, indicate that nematocysts capable of discharge show a high fluorescence and therefore a low pH. According to Berking and Herrmann (2005), the maturation of nematocysts is induced by proton transport and accompanied decrease in pH. They observed a lower pH value in the surrounding fluid after explosion of mature nematocysts in eight different species of all four major cnidarian groups and indicated this as the indirect proof of an acidification in maturing nematocysts.

Higher magnification of MCs infiltrating the blastema and stroma is shown in Figure 2M. Therefore, both adaptive and innate immune cells were present in tumors Tanespimycin cost at a much higher frequency than in normal kidneys. Comparison of the various infiltrative inflammatory immune cells in tumors showed that the degree of TAM infiltration was significantly higher than the degree of infiltration by the other cells (Figure 3). Infiltration pattern of various inflammatory immune cells in different parts of the tumor was summarized in Table W2. Positive immunoreactivity for the COX-2 protein was observed in all tumors assessed relative to normal kidney (Figure 4, A–C). In most tumors,

weak to moderate cytoplasmic COX-2 expression was observed in blastemal and epithelial components and very intense nuclear staining was observed in the tumor stroma ( Figure 4C), although some of the tumors also showed intense cytoplasmic expression in blastemal and epithelial cells (not shown). Normal kidney samples showed weak to moderate

staining in the cytoplasm of some tubular epithelial cells ( Figure 4A) and very weak or no staining in renal interstitial cells or glomeruli. The sum density of COX-2 expression was significantly higher (about five times) in tumors than in normal kidneys ( Figure 4D). Although very little HIF-1 expression was noted in normal kidney slides (Figure 4E), seven of the seven tumors evaluated had cytoplasmic granular staining and membranous Fulvestrant purchase expression in blastemal and epithelial cells ( Figure 4F), with very prominent nuclear localization of HIF-1 protein expression

in the tumor stroma ( Figure 4G). The density of HIF-1 expression in tumors was significantly higher than that in control kidneys ( Figure 4H). The stromal expression of HIF-1 was similar to the COX-2 expression pattern ( Figure 4, C and G). Cytoplasmic expression of p-ERK1/2 in normal kidney was negligible (Figure 4I). In contrast, prominent nuclear p-ERK1/2 staining was observed in 10 of the 14 tumors analyzed. Although some expression in blastemal cells ( Figure 4J) was observed, p-ERK1/2 expression was primarily localized to tumor stroma ( Figure 4, GBA3 K and L). No p-ERK1/2 expression was observed in the epithelial component of tumors (not shown). Expression of p-ERK1/2 was significantly higher in tumors than in control kidneys ( Figure 4L). The stromal expression pattern of p-ERK1/2 was similar to those of COX-2, HIF-1, and VEGF. p-Stat3 expression was predominantly confined to the nucleus, with almost undetectable cytoplasmic staining in 10 of 13 the WT evaluated (Figure 4, M–O). No p-Stat3 expression was detected in three of the tumors. Almost all p-Stat3 expression was in blastema ( Figure 4N) or stroma ( Figure 4O). Very little or no p-Stat3 expression was observed in the epithelial component of the tumors (not shown). p-Stat3 expression was significantly higher in tumors than in normal kidney ( Figure 4P).

6L). Similar to Hunger and Edwards (2012), an analysis can be conducted to explore CH5424802 molecular weight whether different fungicides

can be assumed to provide similar disease control. Furthermore, additional insight may be gained by studying the effects of TebuStar® 3.6L on the plant antioxidants, the plant chlorophyll, and the leaf protein degradation. Finally, it may also be relevant to further investigate the effect of weather (temperature humidity and precipitation) on fungal disease incidences as well as the timing of fungicide applications in Northeast Texas. This study was supported by the Beginning Farmer and Rancher Development Program of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, USDA, Grant # 2010-49400-21729. The authors gratefully acknowledge A. Bradley, Research Technician, Texas A&M University–Commerce, for her assistance with the data, and the anonymous reviewers selleck for their valuable comments and suggestions. The views expressed in this study solely represent those of the authors, who also remain responsible for any computational or data manipulation errors. “
“Event Date and Venue Details from * ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA ANNUAL MEETING, Portland, OR, USA 16–19 November Contact: ESA, 9301 Annapolis Rd., Lanham, MD 20706-3115, USA Email [email protected]. Fax: 1-301-731-4538. http://www.entsoc.org. 2015 *8th INTERNATIONAL

IPM SYMPOSIUM, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 24–26 March Contact: E.E. Wolff. Email [email protected]. *18th INTERNATIONAL PLANT PROTECTION CONGRESS, “Mission Possible: Food for All through Adequate Plant Protection”, Berlin/Dahlem, GERMANY 24–27 August Contact see: http://tinyurl.com/3e96vdr. * ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA ANNUAL MEETING, Minneapolis, MN, USA 14–18 November Contact: ESA, 9301 Annapolis Rd., Lanham, MD 20706-3115, USA. [email protected]. Fax: 1-301-731-4538. http://www.entsoc.org. Full-size table Table options View in workspace Download as CSV “
“Events Date and Venue Details from 2nd Food Integrity & Traceability Conference 8-10 April 2014 Belfast, selleck inhibitor N. Ireland

Internet: http://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/ASSET2014/ 12th International Hydrocolloids Conference 5-9 May 2014 Taipei, Taiwan E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://www.2014ihc.com/en/index.html SenseAsia – The Asian Sensory and Consumer Research Symposium 11-13 May 2014 Singapore Internet: www.senseasia.elsevier.com 3rd International ISEKI Food Conference 21-23 May 2014 Athens, Greece Internet: http://www.isekiconferences.com/athens2014 NAFI 2014: Novel Approaches in Food Industry 26-29 May 2014 Kusadasi, Turkey Internet: http://www.nafi2014.com 27th International Symposium on Polymer Analysis and Characterization 16-18 June 2014 Les Diablerets, Switzerland Internet: http://www.ispac-conferences.org/ IFT Annual Meeting and Food Expo 21-24 June 2014 New Orleans, USA Internet: www.ift.

0; 95% CI, 2.4–179.9). No patients were diagnosed with TB disease. In this study of 100 BCG-vaccinated adults with positive TST results, 30% also had a positive QFT-G result. The strongest

predictors of a positive QFT-G result were TST induration ≥ 16 mm, being from a high-incidence country, and having evidence of a previous, healed TB infection on a chest radiograph. These findings verify the results reported by a Canadian TB clinic, which used a similar approach that resulted in a significant reduction of the number of patients who were treated for LTBI [10]. In the Canadian study, researchers also observed that a positive QFT-G result was associated with the factors found in our study, in addition to increasing age. Additionally, our study showed that persons with a positive TST and a positive QFT

result were more likely to see more have pulmonary abnormalities suggestive of previous TB disease. This is an important finding because these persons are at high risk for developing TB disease and are priority candidates for treatment for LTBI once TB disease is excluded. In BCG-vaccinated persons with a positive TST result observed at a TB clinic in Cleveland, OH, USA, male sex and a shorter time since arrival in the United States were also significantly associated with a positive IGRA result [11]. The advent of IGRAs and their increasing availability selleck kinase inhibitor is having an important impact on setting priorities for the treatment of LTBI in an era of limited and decreasing resources [12]. Approaches to reducing the number of lower-risk persons who are started on treatment include using QFT-G as the test of choice for persons

who have had BCG vaccination or using an IGRA to verify LTBI in those who have a positive TST result. Although the sensitivity of IGRA is similar to that of the TST in patients with culture-confirmed TB, proponents of doing two tests (a TST followed by an IGRA for those who have a positive TST result) highlight the specificity of IGRAs, which approaches ≥94% in BCG-vaccinated persons [5]. In contrast, the specificity of the Methocarbamol TST is relatively low and is heterogeneous in BCG-vaccinated persons, ranging between 35% and 79%. These test parameters suggest that, in BCG-vaccinated persons, an IGRA should be the preferred test [13]. There is evidence suggesting that persons with a positive TST result and a negative QFT-G result are at low risk for developing TB disease. In a German study of 954 close contacts of culture-confirmed pulmonary TB patients, treatment for LTBI was offered only to those who had a positive QFT-G result [14]. None of the treated patients developed TB disease. In contrast, among untreated contacts, only 3.1% of TST-positive [>5 mm] and QFT-G-negative contacts developed disease, while 12.9% of contacts with a positive QFT-G result developed TB disease.

No QTL was previously found on chromosomes 1DL, 4AL and 7BL in common wheat, implying that the present QTL for content of A-type starch Apoptosis Compound Library in vivo granules are new. However, the QTL were not consistently detected across environments and thus other populations or materials should be used in QTL or association mapping to validate these findings. It was concluded that A-type and B-type starch granules were controlled by different genes[32]. Although the relative quantity reflects the granule size distribution and is relatively easy to estimate. Percentage volume is not a suitable parameter for direct comparison of QTL conferring

the two types of granules. Therefore, the specific diameters, numbers and weights of A-type and B-type starch granules should be examined in the future. Starch granule size and RVA parameters are important factors in determining starch function. In a previous study, RVA parameters were mapped with the same RIL population selleck chemicals [31]. Compared to the previous results, Qga.caas-1DL was located near

QTL for sedimentation value and mixograph parameters and the marker for Dx5 + Dy10, where a QTL for palate, stickiness and smoothness of Chinese dry noodle was also mapped [33], indicating that these parameters are related to each other and may have pleiotropic effects on noodle quality. The QTL for both starch properties and dough tolerance may contribute to quality improvement. In addition, Batey et al. [24] mapped a QTL for peak viscosity on chromosome 7BL in the same interval as Qga.caas-7BL. Therefore, content of A-starch granules is closely related to RVA parameters. Many enzymes are involved in starch biosynthesis.

The genes for the key enzyme involved in amylose synthesis, granule-bound starch synthase I (GBSS I), were identified on chromosomes 7AS, 4AL and 7DS [34]. It was reported that partially waxy and waxy wheats had less A-type starch granules and more B-type starch granules than non-waxy wheats [35]. GBSS I was found to be responsible for the ratio of A-type to B-type starch granules [1]. In this study, however, both PH82-2 and O-methylated flavonoid Neixiang 188 have wild type Wx-A1, Wx-B1 and Wx-D1 alleles and no QTL was found at these loci. Soluble starch synthase may control starch granule size distribution in the early stage of grain filling [1]. SS III and SS IV (soluble starch synthase) genes were located on common wheat homoeologous group 1 chromosomes [36] and [37], and it was reported that SS IV affected starch granule formation in Arabidopsis thaliana [38]. In addition, the genes for ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase low subunit, SS I and SS II, and branching enzymes (SBE I and SBE II) were located on homoeologous group 7 chromosomes [39], [40], [41] and [42]. Starch branching enzymes were associated with A-type starch granules [7].

Being aligned with the sloping seabed, the transverse flow transports less dense water down in the southern flank of the channel. Therefore the salinity/density contours bend downwards, Bcl-2 cleavage displaying a tendency to become vertical and eventually produce inverted, hydrostatically unstable stratification. However, when the density contours approach the vertical, the density stratification weakens and the stratified shear gravity current becomes hydrodynamically unstable, producing turbulent mixing together with vertical homogenization of BBL, thereby establishing a pure horizontal density gradient. This was demonstrated in the POM simulation (Figure 4), where the instability of the stratified shear current is plausibly

parameterized by the 21/2 moment turbulence closure (Mellor & Yamada 1982). The

parameterization explicitly describes the effect of stratification on vertical mixing, since the vertical turbulent viscosity KM   and heat/salt diffusivity KH   are expressed as equation(5) KM=lqSM(Rit),KH=lqSH(Rit),where q   is the root mean square velocity fluctuation (so that q  2 is the specific kinetic energy of turbulence), Z-VAD-FMK mouse l   is the external length scale of turbulence, and SM   and SH   are functions of the Richardson number Rit   equation(6) Rit=l2q2gρ0∂ρpot∂z,where ρpot   is the potential density and ρ  0 is the reference density. Note that Rit   < 0 when stratification is hydrostatically stable (in this case −(g/ρ0)(∂ρpot/∂z)≡N2−(g/ρ0)(∂ρpot/∂z)≡N2 is the squared buoyancy frequency), Rit = 0 for neutral stratification, and Rit > 0 for hydrostatically unstable stratification. For neutral stratification (Rit = 0) SM = 0.8 SH = 0.39 and for stable stratification SM and SH are infinitesimally Liothyronine Sodium small with |Rit| (i.e. SM ≈ SH → 0 at Rit → –∞, and, for example, SM ≈ SH = 0.014 at Rit = –1). And finally, for unstable stratification, SM and SH increase rapidly with the growth of an unstable

(inverted) potential density gradient, achieving in the POM code a practical limit of SM = 0.75 SH = 12.7 at Rit = 0.028 and further retaining the same limiting value at Rit > 0.028. Therefore, even when an inverted density gradient was formed as a result of differential transverse advection, the above described drastic increase of vertical eddy diffusivity/viscosity at unstable density stratification would mix up the inversion and establish vertical quasi-homogeneity, so that the residual inverted gradients would be strongly depressed. Unlike POM, the MIKE 3 simulation is based on the Smagorinsky subgrid scale model turbulent closure, which does not explicitly allow for stratification. The Smagorinsky subgrid diffusivity is simply taken to be proportional to the product of the squared vertical grid size and velocity gradients, implying that the model is able to resolve the instability of shear stratified flow and the related intensification of vertical mixing.

The 131Xe isotope (32.8 MHz resonance frequency at 9.4 T, 21.2% natural abundance) has a spin I = 3/2 and thus possesses a nuclear electric quadrupole moment (Q = −11.4 fm2) [16]. The electric quadrupole moment of the 131Xe nucleus is susceptible to interactions with electric field gradients (EFGs) and therefore serves as a sensitive probe for environmentally induced distortions of its large surrounding electron cloud [14]. Unless high concentrations of paramagnetic substances are present, these quadrupolar interactions are the dominant cause of 131Xe nuclear spin relaxation in all phases. Further, 131Xe coherent quadrupolar interactions can be induced when the Sunitinib xenon atoms are contained within an anisotropic environment.

In solid, natural abundance xenon, Warren

and Norberg [17] and [18] found that 131Xe had a very short longitudinal relaxation time of T1 ≈ 200 ms at temperatures close to the melting point (161 K). However, the T1 increased monotonically by more than three orders of magnitude with decreasing temperature and reached T1 = 390 s at 9 K. The relaxation times in liquid xenon show the opposite trend compared to the solid and increase from T1 ≈ 40 ms at 161 K to T1 ≈ 80 ms at 250 K and 3 MPa. Later work [19] determined T1 = 110 ms at conditions just below the critical point, i.e. 298 K and 5.8 MPa. The 131Xe relaxation behavior of xenon dissolved Y27632 in various solvents was subject to experimental and computational studies in the past (see [20] for a review). Longitudinal relaxation in polar solvents is quite fast (T1 < 10 ms) due to the electric field gradient fluctuations induced by the solvent molecule dipoles. Even in non-polar solvents, the 131Xe T1 relaxation times are typically below 50 ms. In gas phase, it was theoretically predicted by Staub and later confirmed experimentally by Brinkmann

et al. [21] that the 131Xe longitudinal relaxation time (T  1) is inversely proportional to the gas density, ρ  , with equation(1) 1/T1131Xe=ρ·3.96×10-2amagat-1s-1.1 amagat is the density of the specific gas at standard pressure and temperature of 101.325 kPa and 273.15 K. For xenon the atomic number density of one amagat is reported with 2.7048 × 1025 m−3 [22]. (Note that in literature the Celastrol amagat is often alternatively defined as the density of an ideal gas at standard pressure and temperature resulting to the slightly different value of 2.6868 × 1025 m−3.) Brinkmann’s result was obtained at a temperature of 298 K and 0.76 T magnetic field strength. In later theoretical work, Adrian [23], considered separately the relaxation dependence on van der Waals and exchange contributions during binary collisions. He obtained 1/T1131Xe=ρ·4.61×10-2amagat-1s-1 for the gas at room temperature but also noted a temperature dependence of the 131Xe relaxation. From these equations, a 131Xe gas-phase relaxation time of T1 ≈ 22–25 s would be expected at ambient pressure (∼1 amagat).

] Radiocarbon-dated fluvial deposits of old channel belts in lower Sindh indicate that aggradation on the megaridge was minimal during the late Holocene. This relative stability of the late Holocene landscape suggests that the abandoned Khaipur and maybe the Western Nara courses are likely older than ∼2700 years and secondary in importance in historical times (Giosan et al., 2012). The complex processes occurring along the Holocene Indus must, as well, have occurred Bosutinib in vitro in the context of environmental and climate variability. Pollen studies

from a core recovered from the Arabian Sea off the Makran Coast (24°509 N, 65°559 E; 695 m depth) show an end of more humid conditions, linked to a weakening of the monsoon, between 4700 and 4200 BP (Ivory and Lézine, Trametinib molecular weight 2009). From tree ring analysis, Ahmed and Cook (2011) conclude, as regards to current water supply along the Indus: “Perhaps the most worrying feature in the streamflow reconstruction is the occurrence of a pronounced and prolonged 112 year low-flow period from AD 1572 to 1683 (median: 3404 m3/s) and a shorter but much drier 27 year period from AD 1637 to 1663 (median: 3292 m3/s). The former is ∼7% below and the latter ∼10% below the median of the observed discharge record”. These initial

inferences and numerical estimates form a useful Holocene context to the larger changes of the Anthropocene; they constitute the “natural” environmental variability on top of which the human-driven changes are occurring. The Indus River presently feeds the world’s largest irrigation system (Fahlbusch et al., 2004). The Pakistan irrigation system is comprised of 3 major storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, and 43 major canals with a total conveyance length of 57,000 km. There are 89,000 watercourses with a running length of more than 1.65 million km (Inam et al., 2007). Major modifications to natural flows started as early as 1762 when the Phuram River at Mora was dammed as an act of aggression by Ghulam Shah Kalora to destroy crop production in

the Rann of Kachchh. The Mora Bund apparently still permitted seasonal flow of the river and additional this website dams were constructed downstream until in 1783, when the Aly Bundar dam successfully closed the southward egress of the eastern Nara to the sea at Lakput. River traffic between 1762 and 1826 was undertaken by barges between the dams until a flood destroyed all the dams in 1826, including the natural Allah Bund (a reverse fault scarp ridge) associated with the 1819 earthquake (Burnes, 1828). Development of the modern system began in 1859 when the Eastern Nara Canal, from Sukkur to the Eastern Nara River, changed the Eastern Nara from an overflow channel into a perennial branch of the Indus. The human footprint includes: 1. Construction of artificial levees to protect agricultural lands from inundation by floodwaters of the Indus, which started in 1869 near Sukkur (Asianics Agro-Dev 2000).