13–057, p < 0001] and disposable handkerchiefs (110% vs 357%;

13–0.57, p < 0.001] and disposable handkerchiefs (11.0% vs 35.7%; RR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.09–0.53, p < 0.001); myalgia was less frequently reported in those using hand disinfectant (6.1% vs 20.1%; RR = 0.25, 95% CI = 0.11–0.56, p < 0.001), and fever was less frequently reported in those vaccinated against pneumococcal infections (8.3% vs 14.6%; RR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.06–0.73, p = 0.007). Of the

Jeddah recommendations, the most challenging was that the population groups considered Roscovitine chemical structure at high risk for complications from influenza should voluntarily refrain from the Hajj of 2009.1 Although our results cannot be extrapolated to all Hajj pilgrims, they clearly indicated that European pilgrims departing from southern France were INCB024360 datasheet unlikely to have heeded the recommendations from the expert conference.7 This was mainly due to the effect

of the high proportion of older Hajjis with underlying chronic conditions. Several limitations of our study must be acknowledged. Reported symptoms were not specific and may be due to non-influenza respiratory infections. Only testing for influenza at or after Hajj would acquire more accurate data. The reliability of reported symptoms and preventive measures taken by telephone interviews may be questionable, and a significant proportion of the enrolled pilgrims were lost prior follow-up. Nevertheless, our results showed that French pilgrims had significant adherence to individual preventive measures during the Hajj of 2009. While the proportion of French pilgrims who suffered a cough during their stay in Saudi Arabia in 2009 (48.5%) was slightly less than that observed in those participating in the Hajj of 2006 (60.6%) and 2007 (61.1%), when no specific preventive measure was proposed with the exception of the influenza vaccination,8,9 our results suggest that vaccination against influenza and the use of surgical face masks were not efficient against respiratory infections to in the context of the 2009 Hajj pilgrimage. Similar results were observed in Malaysian pilgrims during the Hajj of 2007.10 Therefore, these preventive measures probably did not account for the low number of H1N1

cases reported during the Hajj of 2009. Further investigation, including large-scale prospective testing of the effectiveness of preventive measures, particularly surgical face masks and N95 mask use, should be of interest to identify the preventive measures that should be recommended during the pre-travel consultation with future Hajj pilgrims. The highest percentages of H1N1 cases observed in Saudi Arabia before the Hajj were in individuals under the age of 30, and individuals over the age of 50 were less susceptible to infection by the virus but were more severely affected when infected.2–4 Therefore, the large proportion of older individuals in the Hajj population may have been responsible for the low number of H1N1 cases recorded during the pilgrimage.

In our previous study on the ultrastructure of M oxyfera, neithe

In our previous study on the ultrastructure of M. oxyfera, neither TEM nor electron tomography showed the presence of ICM in M. oxyfera cells under the current growth conditions (Wu et al., 2012). This observation raised the question regarding the actual EPZ015666 supplier intracellular location of the pMMO enzyme in M. oxyfera. Here, we show that, consistent with the previous observation, M. oxyfera does not develop ICM under the current growth conditions. Ultrathin section of M. oxyfera cells incubated with α-pMmoB showed gold particles both at and close to

the cytoplasmic membrane (Figs 4 and 5). These results together with the presence of membrane spanning regions in the pMmoB sequence (Fig. 1b) indicate that the pMMO enzyme is most likely located at the cytoplasmic

membrane of M. oxyfera cells. In conclusion, our results suggest that pMMO and NirS enzymes are located in the cytoplasmic membrane and the periplasm of M. oxyfera cells, respectively. Double-labelling experiments showed the co-occurrence of both pMMO and NirS in single M. oxyfera cells. Our results validate the presence of key enzymes in methane- and nitrite-converting pathways in the M. oxyfera metagenome assembly. We would like to thank Katinka van de Pas-Schoonen for support in maintaining the M. oxyfera enrichment culture, Harry R. Harhangi, Huub Op den Camp and Jan T. Keltjens for stimulating discussions, Sarah Neumann for support in the production of the antisera and Geert-Jan Janssen for support at the general instruments facility. L.v.N. Ruxolitinib research buy is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (VENI grant 863.09.009), M.L.W. by a Horizon grant (050-71-058), M.S. by ERC 242635 and M.S.M.J. by ERC 232937. “
“Streptococcus pneumoniae, the leading etiological agent of pneumonia, shares a high degree of DNA aminophylline sequence homology with the viridans group of streptococci. The clinical and pathological manifestations may

present with different features, and discrimination between S. pneumoniae and its close viridans cocci relatives, such as Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus oralis, is still quite difficult. The 445-bp sequences of the N-terminal region of rpoA from nine S. pneumoniae, seven S. mitis, ten S. oralis, and two related strains were determined and compared with their respective 16S rRNA gene sequences to establish their usefulness in phylogenetic analysis. Pairwise comparisons of rpoA sequences among the species showed higher rates of evolution with lower similarities (92.3–100%) than those of 16S rRNA genes (96.8–100%). The rpoA-based phylogeny generated deeper branches and presented improved discriminatory resolution than the 16S rRNA gene-based phylogeny.

This may be followed by maintenance [52] Specific immunotherapy

This may be followed by maintenance [52]. Specific immunotherapy has also been used as treatment for MCD. Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) has been administered either alone or in combination with cART or chemotherapy for patients with MCD both to induce remission and as maintenance therapy [51,53,54]. IFN-α used in combination with vinblastine and splenectomy contributed to the long-term remission of two of three patients [51]. In a case report a patient was initially treated with antiviral therapy and splenectomy followed by chemotherapy to induce remission and, after relapse, IFN-α therapy

[54] led to remission for over a year. A further case report of treatment of Torin 1 in vitro MCD with cART and low-dose IFN-α alone has shown a sustained remission of 24 months [55]. The case for steroid treatment, other than as an adjunct for chemotherapy regimens is unproven, although many practitioners advocate their use to prevent or lessen the effects of a cytokine ‘storm’. As the pathogenesis of MCD is related to HHV8 virus and its viral Trichostatin A cost oncogenes, particularly vIL-6, monoclonal anti-IL-6 therapy has also been used in the treatment of MCD. Seven HIV-negative

patients were treated with atlizumab, a humanized monoclonal anti-IL-6 receptor antibody in patients with either multicentric plasma cell or mixed variant Castleman’s disease. They had resolution of their immediate symptoms and, by 3 months, all had reduction in lymphadenopathy and hypergammaglobulinaemia with improvement of renal function, the result of secondary amyloidosis. This remission was not sustained [56]. These studies have been expanded to a multicentre clinical trial in Japan [57] but there are no reports of the use of atlizumab in persons with HIV. In Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase an ongoing Phase I study, neutralization of IL-6 activity by siltuximab has led to a high objective tumour response

rate (52%) and clinical benefit rate (78%) in subjects with MCD with a favourable safety profile. These results have prompted a trial to definitely assess the efficacy and safety of siltuximab in combination with best supportive care (BSC) versus placebo + BSC which has not yet been published [58]. Recent case reports of treatment with thalidomide also showed resolution of systemic manifestations of MCD, and the patients included one with HIV [59,60]. Thalidomide is known to have a powerful anticytokine effect and inhibits tumour necrosis factor and other pro-inflammatory cytokines. As MCD has been shown to be a virally driven disease, with the presence of viral genes such as vIL-6 having an effect on pathogenesis, the effect of anti-herpesvirus therapy to reduce the KSHV viral load and alleviate disease has been examined in HHV8-associated diseases in the HIV setting.

Even in Australia, the prevalence and incidence of HIV infection

Even in Australia, the prevalence and incidence of HIV infection is as high in some MSM communities as it is in resource-poor countries [22]. There is the potential to identify cohorts of these gay men, at high risk of HIV infection, of sufficient size to enable the conduct of HIV prevention trials [4]. Prevention research in both resource-poor and

resource-rich settings is necessary. Population-specific information on effectiveness and acceptability is essential to provide guidance for policy makers and health-care providers [24]. Here we explore whether subpopulations with sufficiently high incidences of HIV infection for HIV prevention trials can be readily identified in a low HIV incidence setting such as Australia, by assessing incidence in cohort subgroups,

and analysing data on willingness to participate in trials. The Ibrutinib molecular weight HIM study was a community-based prospective cohort study of HIV-negative homosexually active men in Sydney conducted as a vaccine preparedness cohort study [25]. The methodology for the HIM study has been published previously [26,27]. The study HDAC inhibitor recruited participants from June 2001 to December 2004. Interviews were conducted from June 2001 to June 2007. Written informed consent was obtained from all potential study participants prior to enrolment. The HIM study received ethics approval from the University of New South Wales. All participants underwent annual structured face-to-face interviews on a wide range of topics, including sexual relationships and practices and injecting drug use. Serological testing for HIV was performed annually using a combined antigen/antibody test (AxSYM, HIV Antigen/Antibody Combo; Abbott Diagnostics, Abbott Park, IL, USA). At approximately 6 months between annual face-to-face interviews, information on sexual relationships and practices and injecting drug use in the past 6 months was collected via a short version telephone

interview. Quantitative sexual behaviour data were Dapagliflozin collected. Printed HIV prevention information was available for study participants in the interview waiting area, but no formal HIV risk reduction counselling was provided during the study. Incident HIV infections were identified through diagnoses at the annual study visit and by linkage with the national HIV register. The final match against the national HIV register and the final study interviews occurred in June 2007. HIV seroconversion was identified through matching for 13 participants and, for these individuals, no behavioural data were available at the time of estimated infection. For seven participants in whom the estimated date of infection was less than 12 months after the last interview, information obtained from the last interview was carried forward for risk factor analysis. Six participants whose estimated dates of infection were more than 12 months later were excluded from risk factor analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using stata 10.

Methylomirabilis oxyfera whole-cell extracts were separated (30 μ

Methylomirabilis oxyfera whole-cell extracts were separated (30 μg of protein per lane) on a 10% SDS-PAGE gel and transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Protran®, Germany) with a semi-dry transfer cell blotting system (Bio-Rad).

Blotting was performed LY2835219 mw at 100 mA for 45 min with a transfer buffer containing 25 mM Tris, 192 mM glycine and 20% methanol. After blotting, the blots were air-dried and stored at 4 °C until further use. For immunoblotting, the stored blots were washed in distilled water for 30 min. Subsequently, the blots were (1) incubated in blocking buffer (1% BSA) in Tris-buffered saline (TBS; 10 mM Tris-HCL, 0.9% NaCl, pH 7.4) for 1 h; (2) incubated for 1 h in either blocking buffer or rabbit preimmune buy CB-839 serum diluted 250-fold in blocking buffer (negative controls) or antiserum diluted 250-fold in blocking buffer; (3) washed tree times for 10 min in TBS containing 0.05% Tween20; (4) incubated for 1 h in monoclonal mouse α-rabbit IgG alkaline phosphatase conjugate (γ-chain specific;

Sigma, The Netherlands) diluted 1500-fold in blocking buffer; (5) washed two times for 10 min in TBS containing 0.05% Tween and three times for 10 min in TBS; and (6) incubated for 5 min in alkaline phosphatase substrate BCIP/NBT (Sigma), rinsed in distilled water and air-dried. Cells from the M. oxyfera enrichment culture were chemically fixed by immersion in 2% paraformaldehyde and 0.2% glutaraldehyde

in 0.1 M PHEM buffer (25 mM HEPES, 10 mM EGTA, 60 mM PIPES, 2 mM MgCl2, pH 6.9) for 1 h, at room temperature, followed by overnight fixation at 4 °C. Next, the samples were washed three times with 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 and resuspended in 12% gelatin in 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 at 37 °C. After 5 min at 37 °C, the samples were pelleted by a centrifugation step, half of the supernatant was removed, and the samples were placed on ice for 15 min. The gelatin-embedded cells were Suplatast tosilate cut into small cubes (1–2 mm3) under a stereo microscope, infiltrated overnight in rotating vials at 4 °C with 2.3 M sucrose in 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Cryosectioning was performed in a cryoultramicrotome (UCT/FCS or UC6/FCS; Leica Microsystems, Vienna, Austria). Ultrathin cryosections (about 70-nm) were picked up with a drop of 1% methylcellulose and 1.15 M sucrose in PHEM buffer and transferred to carbon-formvar-coated grids (copper, hexagonal 100-mesh) for immunogold localization. For single labelling, grids containing ultrathin sections of M.

Methylomirabilis oxyfera whole-cell extracts were separated (30 μ

Methylomirabilis oxyfera whole-cell extracts were separated (30 μg of protein per lane) on a 10% SDS-PAGE gel and transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Protran®, Germany) with a semi-dry transfer cell blotting system (Bio-Rad).

Blotting was performed selleck products at 100 mA for 45 min with a transfer buffer containing 25 mM Tris, 192 mM glycine and 20% methanol. After blotting, the blots were air-dried and stored at 4 °C until further use. For immunoblotting, the stored blots were washed in distilled water for 30 min. Subsequently, the blots were (1) incubated in blocking buffer (1% BSA) in Tris-buffered saline (TBS; 10 mM Tris-HCL, 0.9% NaCl, pH 7.4) for 1 h; (2) incubated for 1 h in either blocking buffer or rabbit preimmune Seliciclib mouse serum diluted 250-fold in blocking buffer (negative controls) or antiserum diluted 250-fold in blocking buffer; (3) washed tree times for 10 min in TBS containing 0.05% Tween20; (4) incubated for 1 h in monoclonal mouse α-rabbit IgG alkaline phosphatase conjugate (γ-chain specific;

Sigma, The Netherlands) diluted 1500-fold in blocking buffer; (5) washed two times for 10 min in TBS containing 0.05% Tween and three times for 10 min in TBS; and (6) incubated for 5 min in alkaline phosphatase substrate BCIP/NBT (Sigma), rinsed in distilled water and air-dried. Cells from the M. oxyfera enrichment culture were chemically fixed by immersion in 2% paraformaldehyde and 0.2% glutaraldehyde

in 0.1 M PHEM buffer (25 mM HEPES, 10 mM EGTA, 60 mM PIPES, 2 mM MgCl2, pH 6.9) for 1 h, at room temperature, followed by overnight fixation at 4 °C. Next, the samples were washed three times with 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 and resuspended in 12% gelatin in 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 at 37 °C. After 5 min at 37 °C, the samples were pelleted by a centrifugation step, half of the supernatant was removed, and the samples were placed on ice for 15 min. The gelatin-embedded cells were Tideglusib cut into small cubes (1–2 mm3) under a stereo microscope, infiltrated overnight in rotating vials at 4 °C with 2.3 M sucrose in 0.1 M PHEM buffer pH 6.9 and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Cryosectioning was performed in a cryoultramicrotome (UCT/FCS or UC6/FCS; Leica Microsystems, Vienna, Austria). Ultrathin cryosections (about 70-nm) were picked up with a drop of 1% methylcellulose and 1.15 M sucrose in PHEM buffer and transferred to carbon-formvar-coated grids (copper, hexagonal 100-mesh) for immunogold localization. For single labelling, grids containing ultrathin sections of M.

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA)] in all men aged ≥70 years

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA)] in all men aged ≥70 years and all women aged ≥65 years Consider BMD assessment in men and women ≥50 years old if intermediate to high FRAX score and/or additional risk factors Anti-HBs, anti-hepatitis B virus surface antibody; anti-HBc, anti-hepatitis B virus core total antibody;

BMD, bone mineral density; BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; FBC, full blood count; HBsAg, hepatitis B virus surface antigen; HCV, hepatitis C virus; IDUs, injecting drug users; LFT, liver function test; MSM, men who have sex with men; STIs, sexually transmitted infections. Within 3 months prior to commencing ART. History Adherence evaluation

Medication history selleck chemical Over-the-counter, recreational drug use Examination Weight, blood pressure, BMI Waist circumference Investigations FBC Creatinine, eGFR, LFTs, glucose, lipid profile, bone profile Urinalysis Urine protein/creatinine ratio CD4 T-cell count HIV-1 plasma viral load HLA B*5701 testing (if considering use of abacavir) Tropism testing [if considering use of chemokine (C-C motif) receptor PD-1 antibody 5 (CCR5) antagonist – alternatively consider storing plasma sample for future testing] All patients should have their HBV and HCV status reviewed and an assessment undertaken of whether repeat testing is indicated or not Assessment CVD risk Fracture risk assessment in

patients aged ≥50 years ART, antiretroviral therapy; BMI, body mass index; CCR5, chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 5; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; FBC, full blood count; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HLA, human leucocyte antigen; LFT, liver function test. Patients should be assessed within 2–4 weeks of commencing ART. Time of assessment within this range will be influenced Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase by factors including the regimen selected (see text). History Side effects Adherence Investigations FBC Creatinine, eGFR, LFTs, glucose, bone profile CD4 T-cell count (4 weeks) HIV-1 plasma viral load (4 weeks) ART, antiretroviral therapy; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; FBC, full blood count; LFT, liver function test. Individuals with good adherence and full virological suppression should be assessed 3–6-monthly. More frequent assessment will be required if patients are not fully suppressed or other problems present.

01 culture suspension, after 2 days of cocultivation, both A tum

01 culture suspension, after 2 days of cocultivation, both A. tumefaciens strains were able to propagate to a population of about 108 CFU g−1 fresh weight of plant tissue. This result indicates, in agreement with the finding of Nonoka and colleagues, that an increased ethylene level selleck chemicals llc does not affect A. tumefaciens growth in tissue culture (Nonaka et al., 2008b); reduction of ethylene by ACC deaminase also does not have a significant effect on the growth rate of A. tumefaciens during the cocultivation

process. The controversy regarding the effects of ethylene or ACC deaminase on the growth of A. tumefaciens in crown galls compared with that in plant tissue culture may be explained by the fact that the tissue culture environment is very different from crown galls. First, compared with intact plants, the plant segments may react differently

to ethylene, and may not induce the expression of plant defense genes that can inhibit bacterial growth as in crown galls. Second, unlike in crown galls, the cocultivation medium used in tissue culture contains sufficient nutrients to support the growth of the bacteria, so that the ability of an A. tumefaciens strain with ACC deaminase to use ACC as a carbon and nitrogen source is not as important for its growth during the cocultivation process as in crown galls. Funding in support of this work to B.R.G. and T.C.C. was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. “
“Horizontal gene SP600125 transfer (HGT) is frequently observed in

prokaryotes and until recently was assumed to be of limited importance to eukaryotes. However, there is an increasing body of evidence to suggest that HGT is an important mechanism in eukaryotic genome evolution, particularly in unicellular organisms. The transfer of individual genes, gene clusters or entire chromosomes can have significant impacts on niche specification, disease emergence or shift in metabolic capabilities. In terms of genomic sequencing, the fungal kingdom is one of the most densely sampled eukaryotic lineages and is at the forefront of eukaryote comparative genomics Tideglusib and enables us to use fungi to study eukaryotic evolutionary mechanisms including HGT. This review describes the bioinformatics-based methodologies commonly used to locate HGT in fungal genomes and investigates the possible mechanisms involved in transferring genetic material laterally into fungal species. I will highlight a number of fungal HGT events and discuss the impact they have played on fungal evolution and discuss the implications HGT may have on the fungal tree of life. Horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer is defined as the exchange and stable integration of genetic material between different strains or species (Doolittle, 1999). Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) differs from vertical gene transfer, which is the normal transmission of genetic material from parent to offspring.

The finding that the

PD group initiated voluntary saccade

The finding that the

PD group initiated voluntary saccades at abnormally long latencies in the baseline condition is consistent with many previous reports (Kennard & Lueck, 1989; Kitagawa et al., 1994; Amador et al., 2006). It is also consistent with the premise E7080 research buy that saccade initiation in PD is impaired due to over-activity of inhibitory outputs from the basal ganglia via the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) projection to the SC (Albin et al., 1995; Mink, 1996; Hikosaka et al., 2000). The tonic inhibitory output to the SC must be selectively released to allow burst firing of saccade-triggering cells (Hikosaka & Wurtz, 1985). Nigral dopaminergic innervation of the striatum is crucially involved in generating the signal that suppresses the tonic inhibitory output from the SNr to the SC when a saccade is to be made (Hikosaka et al., 2000; Nakamura & Hikosaka,

2006). Thus, in PD, degeneration of nigral dopamine cells may result in over-activity of the inhibitory output from the SNr, thereby affecting the build-up of neural activity in the SC and delaying the triggering of saccades. In the PD group, latencies were abnormally reduced by (pre-saccadic) peripheral symbol changes when voluntary saccades were performed without the discrimination task. Sotrastaurin molecular weight This observation is consistent with other studies showing that exogenous stimuli can facilitate endogenous saccades (Shepherd et al., 1986). We suggest that peripheral visual events (i.e. the symbol changes in this paradigm) might Unoprostone accelerate saccade initiation in PD by boosting the build-up of neural activity in saccade neurons. This exogenous boost might reduce the delay in the build-up of neural activity in the SC in PD. The PD group exhibited an abnormally large latency reduction when voluntary saccades were made in conjunction with the discrimination task. We suggest that the

intention to perform the discrimination task promotes the release and shift of attention away from the central fixation point, in preparation for the impending appearance of the discrimination symbol at the peripheral saccade target location. This effect supports and facilitates saccade planning and can thereby reduce saccade latencies (Montagnini & Chelazzi, 2005; Trottier & Pratt, 2005). Previously, we reported that the concurrent performance of a discrimination task abnormally reduced latencies of visually guided (or reflexive) saccades in the same PD group (van Stockum et al., 2011b). Especially in overlap trials, the continued presence of the fixation point apparently did not exert the same inhibitory effect in the PD group as in the control group. We proposed that the abnormal endogenous facilitation of visually guided saccades observed in PD may be associated with a decrease in the inhibition of saccade cells during fixation.

, 2000) and is expected to limit the extent of 14C-phenanthrene b

, 2000) and is expected to limit the extent of 14C-phenanthrene biodegradation in the soils; low TOC in soils can be an indication

of low microbiological activity (Margesin & Schinner, 2001). Samples taken in the selected sites were mostly bare of vegetation and plate counts revealed very low CFUs (Fig. 3) for both total heterotrophs and 14C phenanthrene-degrading bacteria. The presence of only small LDK378 chemical structure numbers of PAH-degrading bacteria can be explained by the absence of degradation inducing chemicals from both biogenic and anthropogenic sources. Sufficient concentrations of biogenic volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from plants (Wilcke, 2007; McLoughlin et al., 2009) and anthropogenic compounds have been identified as carbon sources for microbial activity, growth and the induction of appropriate genes for PAH degradation in indigenous microorganisms (Macleod & Semple, 2002; Johnsen & Karlson, 2005). Hydrocarbon degraders have been cultivated at levels > 105 cell g−1 from contaminated polar soils and have increased following oil spillage by 1–2 orders of magnitude in hydrocarbon contaminated soil compared with pristine soils (Aislabie et al., 2000). In this study, CFUs of 14C-phenanthrene-degrading bacteria increased in all five soils and by one order of magnitude in soils 1, 3 and 5 after mineralization in slurry PARP inhibitor conditions (Fig. 3). Of the three temperatures

used in this study, 4 °C was the most representative of prevailing temperatures at Livingstone Island hence appropriate for optimum microbial activity. However, no significant amount of 14C-phenanthrene was mineralized in any of the five soils (Table 2). Reduced bioavailability of PAHs at low temperatures has also been reported as a possible reason for

low levels of microbial degradation (Eriksson et al., 2003). At low temperatures, the solubility and bioavailability of less soluble hydrophobic organic compounds, such as PAHs, decrease because of an increase in viscosity in the physical nature of the compounds and because of stronger sorption to the soil organic matter. Increased viscosity will decrease the degree of organic compound distribution (less surface area for microbial action) and subsequent diffusion rates to sites of biological action Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase leading to reduced extents of degradation (Nam & Kim, 2002). Ferguson et al. (2003a, b)obtained similar results when they found that mineralization of 14C-labelled octadecane was virtually absent at temperatures below or near the freezing point of water. At 12 °C, the extents of 14C-phenanthrene mineralized increased significantly in two of the five soils after a long lag phase. 14C-Phenanthrene was mineralized to a greater extent at 22 °C than at 4 and 12 °C for all the soils. The increasing solubility of phenanthrene with increasing temperature would mean that the amount of phenanthrene in solution (and therefore available for degradation) would have been higher at 22 °C that at 4 and 12 °C.