In Hawai’i, for example, approximately 90% of the flora is endemic at the species level and more than 762 endemic species of land snail are known (mostly as extinct taxa represented by subfossil specimens) (Ziegler, 2002). Polynesia thus offers a remarkable set of model systems for investigating the CX-5461 datasheet role of humans in modifying initially pristine island ecosystems, transforming these into often highly managed and human dominated landscapes. In short, the Polynesian islands are model systems for the transition from the Holocene to the Anthropocene at different scales and under differing environmental parameters (Vitousek, 2002). Recognizing

the signals of initial human presence on Polynesian islands and dating these colonization events has engendered some debate. In Western Polynesia, direct evidence for Hormones antagonist human arrival in the form of sites containing Lapita pottery, has been less contentious than in Eastern Polynesia where the lack of ceramics makes identification of early settlements more problematic. For some Eastern Polynesian islands, such as Hawai’i and New Zealand, the best evidence for human arrival comes not from archeological habitation sites, but from proxy evidence such as the presence of the Polynesian

introduced Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) or sharp influxes of microscopic charcoal particles and abrupt changes in pollen frequencies in sediment cores ( Athens, 1997, Athens et al., 2002 and Wilmshurst et al., 2008) The impacts of colonizing Polynesians on island ecosystems can be heuristically divided into direct (intentional) and indirect (unintended) kinds. Among the most common direct impacts were: (1) http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/AP24534.html harvesting and predation on wild food resources, including marine turtles,

fish and shellfish, terrestrial birds, and nesting or roosting seabirds, often leading to changes in the population structures of these species, and in some cases to local extirpation or global extinction ( Steadman, 2006); (2) forest clearance for horticulture, often involving the use of fire in systems of shifting cultivation, but also burning of forests to drive game, particularly in New Zealand; (3) the purposive introduction of a suite of economic plants and domestic animals (including pig, dog, and chicken); and (4) the physical modification and manipulation of landscapes through the construction of irrigation complexes, dryland field systems, and other artificial facilities. Indirect impacts included: (1) the introduction of invasive species such as weeds, geckos, skinks, the Pacific rat (which may have been purposefully introduced for food), and ants and other insects, some of which appear to have had significant negative impacts on the indigenous and endemic biota of the islands; (2) the effects of pigs which became feral on some islands; and (3) most likely—although this requires further research—the effects of introduced disease pathogens.

BE images with the corresponding targeted biopsy specimen were

retrieved. Images of the highest quality were selected by an investigator (who did not participate in the assessment); histology was available for all selected images. A 1-hour structured interactive teaching session was conducted with 6 endoscopists by using 8 AFI/NBI images (teaching set). All images for the interobserver agreement study were evaluated by 6 endoscopists, 3 experts (faculty members) and 3 nonexperts (trainees). Sirolimus manufacturer The senior author of this article (P.S.), who performed all of the endoscopies of Apoptosis inhibitor the study, did not participate in the interobserver study. To assess interobserver agreement, an independent testing set of images was inserted in a PowerPoint presentation with a black background. Each image was numbered, and the slides were randomized in a computer-generated fashion with the image number displayed during the PowerPoint slide show. The 6 endoscopists were then given the testing set and

were asked to review each image. The following information was collected: 1 Patterns: AFI, abnormal purple fluorescence/normal rest of the areas; magnification NBI: regular/irregular All reviewers were blinded to the patient’s medical history, histological diagnosis, and other imaging data. Patient demographics, endoscopy findings (location of landmarks, BE length, length of hernia, AFI and NBI patterns), biopsy, and histology reports were collected and recorded

in a standardized case report form. Details of subjects enrolled in the study were then entered into a central database. The collected data included (1) demographics: age, sex, race, and body mass index; (2) endoscopic details: the date of procedure, presence of hiatal hernia, presence of visible Glycogen branching enzyme lesions, BE length by using Prague C&M8; (3) histological diagnosis of all of the areas analyzed in the BE mucosa; and (4) highest grade of histological diagnosis during the procedure (overall dysplasia). For the final analysis in this study, AFI and magnification NBI evaluation of only the flat mucosa away from the visible lesions was considered. All lesions detected with AFI, NBI, and random biopsies were regarded as abnormal areas with AFI and/or NBI and normal areas if detected with random biopsies only. Areas that were indefinite for dysplasia were included under LGD during data collection and analysis.

Before phenotyping, cells were incubated with Fc-Block for 15 minutes (BD Biosciences, Heidelberg, Germany). After staining of dead cells with EMA (Life Technologies) and cell surface molecules, intracellular cytokines were stained using the Cytofix/Cytoperm Kit (BD Biosciences). Cells were analyzed using a FACSCanto II flow cytometer (BD Biosciences), and data were analyzed Selleckchem ZVADFMK using FlowJo 9.2 software (Tree Star, Inc, Ashland, OR). T cells

were isolated, stimulated, and transduced for 3 days before transfer. The cells were then harvested and washed 2 times with ice-cold PBS (180g, 4°C, 8 minutes). CAR expression was determined by flow cytometry. The cell number was adjusted to 4 × 106 CAR+ cells per animal dissolved in PBS and injected intraperitoneally. Mice were bled at indicated time points. Recipient mice were 16- to 24-week-old male animals. Groups of mice were matched for age and hepatitis B e antigen titers. Data are reported as mean values ± SEM. Groups were compared with the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test using Prism 5.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc, La Jolla, CA). A P value less than .05 was considered statistically significant. Additional methods are described

in Supplementary Materials and Methods. The HBV-specific chimeric antigen receptor (S-CAR) used in this study to redirect T cells contains a single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) that binds to the S domain of all 3 HBV envelope proteins (S, M, and L protein, combined as HBsAg). The scFv find more is linked to the CD3ζ and costimulatory CD28 signaling domains (Figure 1A), providing combined activation signals to T cells when recognizing cell surface–bound HBsAg. The aim of this is

to overcome local hepatic coinhibitory signals. 11 A human carcinoembryonic MYO10 antigen (CEA)-specific CAR served as a control for antigen-independent activation of grafted T cells. After transduction of T cells with CARs using retroviral vectors ( Figure 1B), only S-CAR–transduced T cells produced high amounts of interferon (IFN)-γ and proliferated in an antigen-specific manner, that is, when cocultured with HBV-replicating human hepatoma cells but not with HBV-negative parental cells ( Figure 1C and D). We observed mobilization of the lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 on binding of S-CAR–grafted T cells to plate-bound HBsAg ( Figure 1E), indicating release of cytotoxic granules. Notably, S-CAR–redirected T cells recognized surface antigen of the 2 most prevalent subtypes of HBV: adw and ayw ( Figure 1F). Critical for the success of adoptive cell therapy is the proper functionality of transferred T cells, ensuring that these cells survive and accumulate at the site of antigen expression.16 We compared classic IL-2 stimulation with IL-12 stimulation of T cells during in vitro expansion and retroviral CAR transduction.

2B), by a lower pI, a higher proportion of leucine and lycine and a lower amount of alanine, cysteine, glutamic acod and glutamine, being less thermostable and more hydrophilic. Of original Venetoclax chemical structure grouped toxins, 72.6% were correctly classified while cross-validation correctly classified 60% of toxins. Of the 27 known

myotoxic proteins, 21 (78%) were correctly predicted. The prediction accuracy of known hypotensive proteins is 86% (6 out of 7), while neurotoxic and oedematous proteins were both correctly predicted in 62% of cases. Haemotoxic proteins were correctly predicted in 74% of cases. The profile neighbour-joining tree (Fig. 3) shows good correspondence between cluster membership and known and/or predicted functions, although much of the deeper structure of the tree is not supported by bootstrap analysis. For example, only one known myotoxin lies outside a cluster containing proteins with similar functions. A fundamental split between proteins with a mainly haemotoxic (and hypotensive) function and proteins having selleckchem oedematous, myotoxic or neurotoxic activity is evident. Apart from the distinct clustering of viperine sequences (clusters A and B) there is no particularly strong signal of taxonomy in the tree (e.g., cluster D, which largely groups toxins from rattlesnakes, also contains toxins from the Old World genera Ovophis and Gloydius). Interestingly, hypotensive PLA2s seem to be

structurally similar in viperines, occurring in only cluster A, despite disparate specific origins. However, in the crotalines, they appear independently among different clusters, and are always very similar to a haemotoxic protein. Similarly, oedematous activity and myotoxicity are also closely related, with whole clusters being identified containing Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase proteins known/predicted to have one of these activities

(e.g., clusters C and E, Fig. 3). The independent evolution of myotoxins is indicated by their occurrence in each of the two clusters of viperine PLA2s (A and B) and in several distinct clusters of crotaline toxins (C, D, E and predicted, but not confirmed, in some other clusters as well). Although not well illustrated in the figure, which shows only one function for each toxin, many neurotoxins from pitvipers can also display myotoxicity. This is true of many of the known neurotoxins in cluster C and D, which may explain many of the discrepancies observed between known and predicted function in these clusters. A large number of the inferred haemotoxins examined, however, are not strongly structurally related and fall into a number of small clusters whose relationships are unclear. Within these are located the small clusters of PLA2s with known hypotensive activity and, perhaps more surprisingly, two known neurotoxic PLA2s. These are not predicted as neurotoxins by DFA, and may have acquired neurotoxicity recently and independently. Results from Protfun 2.2 did not correspond with expected classifications.

Heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Ni, Cr) were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry on a SOLAAR Mkll M6 Double Beam (2004) spectrometer with flame atomiser (Laboratory of Biochemistry, Poleski Agrarian-Ecological Institute NAS of Belarus). The total relative analytical errors were as follows: pH 0.2; TSS 10%; phosphate 7.85%; nitrate 9.74%; ammonium 8.73%; chloride 5%; HM ≤ 5%. The results of the snow analysis are presented in Table 1. The pH of all the samples was slightly acidic (overall mean value 6.57). Zn and PO43−

concentrations exceeded MPCs in all the samples. The results of the snowmelt runoff analysis are presented in Table 2. The concentrations of TSS, Cl−, PO43−, NH4+, Mn and Zn exceeded MPC in the samples from all the sites. The overall mean concentrations of Cu and Ni also exceeded MPC, and the pH

was slightly alkaline this website (see Table 2). According to the initial results, several components can have a potential environmental impact. All the pollutants tested for were found in the samples of snow. The contaminants in the atmospheric precipitation in Belarus are mainly of trans-boundary origin, although contamination by reduced nitrogen is basically of local origin (Struk 2002). The pH values do not deviate from MPCs (except snow at site 2) and change from slightly acidic in precipitation to slightly alkaline in the snowmelt runoff (see Figure 2a); this is the result of contact with concrete pavement covers, buildings and selleck products road constructions, and the solubilisation and accumulation of alkaline components. TSS and chloride ions are the main pollutants in the snowmelt runoff. The average concentrations of TSS and chloride are several times higher than MPCs, their overall mean concentrations exceeding MPCs 63.3 and 9.6 times respectively. This is due to the de-icing of streets and roadways,

which is done using composites aminophylline containing a mixture of sand and sodium chloride. The TSS and chloride concentrations most probably depend on the frequency of street cleaning and de-icing and snow removal. The highest TSS and chloride concentrations in the snowmelt runoff samples were obtained for sampling site 1, which has the heaviest traffic and public transport and the most intensive salting and snow removal, because all the applied reagents are readily washed away by the snowmelt under such conditions. A substantial percentage of TSS (with coarser particles) remains on the roads and pavements during snow melting periods (see Figure 3). These solids present a potential contamination threat for the river waters, as they can be washed into the receiving waters by surface runoff from a later portion of snowmelt (Westerlund et al. 2006) or during later storm events.

The image distortions (“shadows”) produced by the posterior (dorsal) catheters can obscure the view of more anterior (ventral) catheters during treatment planning, and the catheters themselves can obscure the prostate contour especially near the apex. Schmid et al. (29) compared needle reconstruction accuracy with ultrasound to CT using a phantom. The two main problems were spurious echoes on TRUS and difficulty with craniocaudal

needle tip identification (up to 6 mm). In addition, definition of contours of the rectum and to a lesser extent the bladder may be less accurately rendered with real time TRUS planning than with CT-based planning. Newer 3D ultrasound probes will likely reduce some of these technical difficulties ( Fig. 2). Monitoring and adjustment of catheters is not unique to CT dosimetry or TRUS, but rather this website it is a key element of multifraction HDR brachytherapy. Most of the catheter displacement studies are based on the CT dosimetry process, which involves moving the patient between simulation and treatment delivery. Kovalchuk et al. (30) at the Mayo Clinic did a

dosimetry study of catheter displacement by comparing initial dosimetry with doses that would be delivered with displaced catheters. They noted a mean needle displacement of 3.5 mm between fractions. The D90 ≥ 95% was 100% vs. 82% (initial vs. displaced), V100 ≥ 95% was 87% vs. 53%, and urethra V115 ≤ 10% was 78% vs. 69%. Replanning improved the dosimetry. Huang et al. (31) at Henry Ford Hospital performed CT scans before every HDR fraction Nivolumab mouse in 13 patients and made catheter adjustments when there was >3 mm catheter displacement. Adjustments were made on 30% catheters by an average of 5.8 mm. Without adjustments, the D90 would have been 10–32% less than the originally planned and after making adjustments, the D90 was within 10% of the original plan. Holly et al. (32) from Ontario Canada performed cone-beam CT to assess catheter displacement between planning

and the first treatment in 20 consecutive patients and evaluated the ability to improve dosimetry Interleukin-2 receptor by catheter readjustment. A mean catheter displacement of 11 mm was noted, and it would have resulted in a decrease in mean V100 from 98% to 77% (p < 0.001), mean D90 from 111% to 73% (p < 0.001), and an increase in urethra D10 from 118% to 125% (p = 0.0094) had it not been corrected. Catheter readjustments were helpful (V100 90%, D90 97%, and urethra D10 126%) but did not completely restore the original dosimetry. These and other studies demonstrate that catheter displacement can be a source of discrepancy between the calculated and delivered dose [33], [34] and [35]. The clinical significance of small (e.g., <3 mm) changes in catheter position has not been demonstrated. There are two TRUS treatment planning interfraction motion studies. Seppenwoolde et al.

Control group was not exposed to any procedure during the experiment (G1, n = 12). The test groups were submitted to inhalation saline solution (G2, n = 10), budesonide 30 μg (G3, n = 10), and budesonide 100 μg (G4, n = 10), during a 14-day period. BEZ235 research buy All the solutions were administered to the rats once a day. In order to minimize stress generated by novelty effect, the animals were submitted to the forced

ventilation chamber without nebulization for 5 min during 4 days, before the beginning of the experimental period. Besides the inhalatory treatment, all animals were submitted to the model of induction of alveolar bone loss. Cotton ligatures (Ethicon, Johnson & Johnson, São Paulo, Brazil) were placed around the second maxillary molars on the right side under general anaesthesia with xylazine/ketamine (10 mg/kg—1:1). The contra-lateral teeth (that were not submitted to any manipulation)

were considered for control analysis.11, 12, 13 and 14 NVP-AUY922 molecular weight To administrate the inhalatory solutions to the animals, a ventilation chamber was built according to a previous study.15 It consisted in a 3 mm thickness acrylic transparent cage (22 cm × 22 cm × 22 cm), divided into four cells with the same space each one and covered by a removable lid of the same material. A hole was present in the centre of the lid. The cage was connected to a nebulizer through a 5 mm diameter hose. The researchers prepared the solutions. Based on 5 min nebulization capacity medroxyprogesterone of the nebulizer (1.1 ml), 2.7 ml of budesonide (Pulmicort®, 0.5 mg/ml, AstraZeneca, São Paulo, Brazil) was diluted in 97.3 ml of saline solution (NaCl 0.9%) for G3. For G4, 9.1 ml of budesonide was diluted in 90.9 ml of NaCl 0.9%. The rats were placed in the cage that was covered and sealed with adhesive tape, to minimize possible loss of medication during the

nebulization procedure. After that, the animals were maintained for 1 min extra to dissipate the solution in the cage. Following, the chamber was cleaned with water and soap to remove deposits of the medication on the walls. All the procedures were performed in the morning, once a day, at the same time, during 14 days. To ensure proper operation of the apparatus, nebulization was performed without the animals in the cage in order to verify the nebulization volume during the experimental period once a week. Additionally, the residual volume in the reservoir was measured to verify possible alterations in the apparatus. Body weight was measured (in grams) to evaluate animals general health at days 0, 7, and 14, during the experimental period. The animals were killed by decapitation. Such procedure was performed 24 h after the last administration of the medication/saline solution. The levels of TNF-α in supernatants were determined by ELISA using commercial anti-cytokine antibody pairs (Becton Dickson, Pharmingen, San Jose, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s protocols.

So ist z. B. Wildtyp-HTT wichtig für den Eisenmetabolismus und die Produktion von Energie durch Oxidation, wie sich anhand der Abnahme an Hämoglobin und der veränderten Endozytose von Eisen bei Htt-defizienten Zebrafischen zeigen ließ [147]. In der Tat sind bei post mortem gewonnenen Gehirngewebeproben PF2341066 von HK-Patienten sowie bei HK-Tiermodellen der Fe- und Cu-Gehalt im Corpus striatum erhöht [148] and [149]. Darüber hinaus zeigen sich in Gehirnen von HK-Patienten post mortem Veränderungen bei der Aktivität Mn-abhängiger Enzyme [3]. Des Weiteren wurde an Tiermodellen eine Zunahme des Ferritins, eines intrazellulären Eisenspeicherproteins,

in der Mikroglia gezeigt [150]. CDK phosphorylation Interessanterweise haben Fox und Kollegen berichtet, dass das Wildtyp-Htt-Protein mit Cu interagiert, wodurch die Löslichkeit des Proteins herabgesetzt wird [151]. Schließlich ist die Bildung von Einschlusskörperchen infolge expandierter CAG-Repeats in mutierten Htt-Proteinfragmenten möglicherweise mit eisenabhängigen oxidativen Ereignissen assoziiert [152]. Alle diese Untersuchungen deuten stark darauf hin, dass Wildtyp-Htt für die Metallhomöostase im Gehirn erforderlich

ist. Der klinische Verlauf der HK ist mit erhöhten Fe- und Cu-Spiegeln im Corpus striatum verbunden [148] and [149]. In post mortem untersuchten Gehirnen von HK-Patienten und bei giftstoff-induzierten Tiermodellen für HK sind Änderungen hinsichtlich verschiedener Mn-abhängiger

Enzyme, darunter Arginase, Glutaminsynthetase, Pyruvatdecarboxylase und Mn-Superoxiddismutase 2 (SOD2), beobachtet worden [3], [22], [153], [154], [155] and [156]. Auch zeigten anhand von Tiermodellen erhaltene Daten einen heptaminol signifikanten Anstieg des Ferritins (eines intrazellulären Eisenspeicherproteins) in Mikroglia [150]. Interessanterweise haben Fox et al. kürzlich berichtet, dass das Htt-Protein mit Cu interagiert, wodurch die Löslichkeit des Proteins herabsetzt wird [151]. Wie jedoch Cu oder andere Metallionen auf zellulärer Ebene auf die Funktion von Htt, seine proteolytische Prozessierung zu N-terminalen Fragmenten, die Aggregation der Fragmente und die Bildung von Einschlusskörperchen aus mutiertem Htt Einfluss nehmen, ist derzeit noch unbekannt. Schließlich zeigen jüngere Daten, dass die Bildung von Einschlusskörperchen infolge expandierter CAG-Repeats in mutierten Htt-Proteinfragmenten mit eisenabhängigen oxidativen Ereignissen assoziiert ist, was die Möglichkeit eröffnet, dass andere redox-aktive Metallionen wie Mn die Polyglutaminaggregation beeinflussen könnten [152]. Im Wesentlichen zeigen also verschiedene Studien, dass oxidativer Stress, mitochondriale Funktionsstörungen, Exzitotoxizität und Änderungen bei der Eisenhomöostase entscheidende Faktoren sowohl bei der Neurotoxizität von Mn als auch bei der Neuropathologie der HK sind.

The estimated errors of approximation are given in Table 1. The broad range of concentrations of the optically active components (OACs) contained in the

waters of the investigated lakes (e.g. chlorophyll a concentration Ca from ca 1 mg m−3 to 336 mg m−3) enables the influence of each group of these OACs on the reflectance spectra Rrs(λ) of these waters to be established. Three types of reflectance spectra with quite different shapes and values were distinguished. The first one, for waters with intermediate (or low) concentrations of all three OACs, has a conspicuous, broad peak in the 560–580 nm band (with maximum values of Rrs very much less than 0.01 sr−1), and two very weak, scarcely discernible peaks in the longwave bands. These type I spectra Rrs(λ) of the lake waters resemble those commonly observed for the Baltic Proper. The second type, for lake waters with very high CDOM concentrations Selleck Anti-infection Compound Library (aCDOM(440 nm)> 10 m−1), has very low reflectance values (Rrs < 0.001 sr−1) over the entire spectral range, with two visible OSI-906 order reflectance spectra peaks: a very weak one at ca 650 and a somewhat stronger one at 690–710 nm. The third type of spectrum Rrs(λ), for lake

waters with low CDOM concentrations (aCDOM(440 nm)< 5 m−1) and high chlorophyll a levels (Ca > 4 mg m−3, up to 336 mg m−3) exhibits three peaks (Rrs > 0.005 sr−1): a broad one at 560–580 nm, a smaller one at ca 650 nm and a well-pronounced one at 690–720 nm. The correlations of the relevant spectral reflectance bands with the chlorophyll a concentration and with the total SPM concentration for the lake waters have high coefficients of determination: R2 = 0.95 and 0.90 respectively. The correlation of the coloured dissolved organic matter absorption coefficient aCDOM(440 nm) with the spectral reflectance band ratio Rrs(570)/Rrs(655) is somewhat weaker, with a coefficient of determination R2 = 0.85. As expected, the errors in determining optically active components (OAC) with the new equations are also quite satisfactory. The standard error factors are as follows: for the estimated chlorophyll a

concentration x = 1.36, for the estimated total SPM concentration x = 1.56 and for the estimated coloured dissolved organic matter absorption coefficient x = 1.46. PAK6 “
“The high phytoplankton productivity in the Baltic (Hagström et al. 2001) makes it a key area on the European shelf as regards atmospheric CO2 uptake (Thomas et al. 2003, 2005). Since particulate organic matter (POM) is a carrier of carbon to the sediments, it plays an important role in the biological pump mechanism (e.g. Pempkowiak et al. 1984, Chisholm 2000, Turnewitsch et al. 2007). The measure of particulate organic matter is particulate organic carbon (POC). POC concentrations depend on the equilibrium between the sources and sinks of organic substances.

e., when not all genotypes can be found in all environments with the same frequency). For simplicity, G*E and covGE are often assumed absent, reducing this to P = G + E. An important statistic derived from this is the heritability, h2 = G/P, which

is often expressed as a percentage. In the same way as the variance, one can attempt the partitioning of the covariance between Wortmannin two phenotypes x and y. Together with the partitioning of the variance of the two phenotypes, this can give an estimate of the genetic correlation (rG) between these two characters: rG=GxyGxGy. In the absence of a linkage disequilibrium, a significant genetic correlation indicates that there exists one or more genes that influence check details both phenotypes simultaneously, making it highly likely that at least part of the physiological pathways leading from genotype to phenotype are common, so that a causal, and perhaps also functional, relationship must exist between the two phenotypes

[32]. The long history of the field of behavior genetics has greatly enriched our understanding of the inheritance of behavior. New methodologies promise to facilitate gene localization and identification. One serious problem faced by both animal and human behavioral geneticists is the need to increase our understanding of the phenotypes that we study. The behavioral constructs supposedly underlying the test batteries that we use are in urgent need of validation and, in psychiatric genetics, disease entities need to be re-defined. An important role awaits behavior geneticists here, because, if applied judiciously, behavior genetics and its toolbox can aid greatly in this process. Nothing declared. I thank Drs. Richard Brown (Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada), John Crabbe (VA, Portland, OR, USA), Douglas Wahlsten (Salt Spring Island, BC, Canada), and Frank Peyré (Bordeaux) for many stimulating Chloroambucil discussions over the years about the ideas presented

in this article. “
“Current Opinion in Behavioural Sciences 2015, 2:xx–yy This review comes from a themed issue on Behavioral Genetics 2015 Edited by William Davies and Laramie Duncan doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.10.011 2352-1546/Published by Elsevier Ltd. Pheromones are chemicals that have evolved as a signal emitted from one individual, to generate a specific reaction in another member of the same species 1 and 2]. Since the landmark purification of bombykol, a compound secreted by female silk moths that provokes males to engage in a frantic wing-fluttering dance, the idea of influencing the behaviour of other individuals via chemicals has captured the public imagination [3]. From a research perspective, provoking behaviour with synthetic chemical cues offers a unique opportunity to experimentally decompose complex social interactions at the sensory, neural, genetic and behavioural level [2].