Circulating levels of LEVS appear to be increased in adults with chronic B-cell lymphoproliferations (chronic lymphocytic leukemia, small cell lymphoma and mantle cell lymphoma) [91] and [152] and in children with B-cell neoplasm [153]. Finally, LEVS derived from leukemic cells probably play a pathological role by participating to the coagulopathy that is sometimes observed in patients with acute myeloblastic leukemia [154] and [155]. In a study evaluating patients with acute promyelocytic

leukemia (a situation characterized by serious bleeding and thrombotic complications), Ma et al. analyzed LEVS from 30 patients and healthy controls [156]. The morphology of the LEVS was examined by using transmission electron microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy. LEVS were quantified and analyzed for their thrombin-generating potential. Counts Doxorubicin of LEVS in patients with acute promyelocitic leukemia were elevated and were typically from promyelocytic cells (CD33+, tissue factor+). The CD33+ LEVS levels correlated with patient leukocyte counts and coagulation activation (evaluated by measuring Selleckchem RG 7204 d-dimer). Moreover, LEVS from patients decreased the coagulation times and induced thrombin generation; interestingly, LEVS-associated thrombin generation was reduced by adding an anti-human

tissue factor antibody, but neither with anti-factor XI nor anti-tissue factor pathway inhibitor. Vascular homeostasis is the reflection of quiescent, but competent endothelium. EEVS are released by endothelium [157] and [158]. They are now recognized as key players

in a multitude of biological functions necessary for the maintenance of endothelial integrity and vascular biology. EEVS have been demonstrated to act as primary and secondary messengers of vascular inflammation, thrombosis, vasomotor response, angiogenesis, and endothelial survival. EEVS also induce cell cycle arrest through redox-sensitive processes in endothelial cells, thus having implications in vascular senescence [159]. These often-neglected EEVS are emerging as potentially useful indicators of dysfunctioning endothelium. They have been implicated in many different diseases such as pre-eclampsia Farnesyltransferase in pregnancy [160], pulmonary hypertension [161], chronic graft versus host disease [162], antiphospholipid syndrome [163], or vasculitis such as in Kawasaki’s syndrome [164]. They also have been detected in cancer patients in whose circulating levels of MPS correlate with prognosis, and could be used as prognostic markers for example in advanced non-small cell lung cancer [165]. Very recently, EEVS have been implicated as player in mitral valve disease. In a study of patients with mitral valve disease, Ci et al.

As compared with the control selleckchem group, MPO activity was increased by 40% in the GM-group and reduced 86% and 94% in the AV and AVGM groups, respectively. Neutrophils were stimulated to produce hypochlorous acid by the addition of PMA (60 ng/well). Hypochlorous acid concentration was significantly reduced by 25% in the AV group and increased by 135%

and 99% in the GM and AVGM groups, respectively, when compared with the control group (Table 1). The maximum G6PDH activity was assessed by the reduction of the co-factor NADP+ into NADPH in human neutrophils (Table 1). GM promoted a significant reduction of 37% in G6PDH activity and astaxanthin + vitamin C addition (AVGM group) increased the G6PDH activity by 52% when compared to the GM group. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are inflammatory cytokines which play important roles in immune responses to a variety of inflammatory stimuli. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of GM on TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 after 18 h of LPS-stimulation. The levels of these cytokines LBH589 in the culture supernatants were measured using ELISA kits. Control neutrophils treated with LPS showed a significant increase in cytokine production when compared with the basal condition (100 ± 10 pg/ml, data not shown). The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α by human neutrophils in the AVGM group

was significantly decreased by 46%, 36% and 77%, respectively, when compared with the GM-group. IL-1β and TNF-α were also reduced in the AV-group by 42% and 89%, respectively, when compared with the control group. The production of reactive oxygen species is among the key weapons used by neutrophils to exterminate pathogens. In order to evaluate some possible modulation of

MGO + glucose and astaxanthin and vitamin C in a few of these species we used different probes. Superoxide anion production was measured by using two different probes, DHE and lucigenin. As assayed by the DHE probe, when GM-treated cells were stimulated with PMA there was an increase of 41% in the superoxide anion production compared with the PMA-control cells. Cells treated with astaxanthin plus vitamin C decreased production of superoxide anion by 54% as compared with the control-stimulated group. Addition of antioxidants to cells treated find more with GM (AVGM group) promoted a reduction of 66% in superoxide as compared with the GM group in stimulated conditions. Rotenone + Sodium Azide and DPI were added to neutrophils under PMA-stimulation. Both inhibitors significantly reduced superoxide anion production to basal levels. SOD enzyme addition was used to evaluate the specificity of DHE probe to superoxide anion (Fig. 3A), and as expected there was no significant fluorescence in this group. As an internal control, we also carried out the addition of 50 μM of H2O2 to PMA-treated cells. As expected, there was no increase in the fluorescence produced, thus ensuring the specificity of DHE for superoxide anion (data not shown). The lucigenin probe (Fig.

The fifth position of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines contain N-(3-oxobutanoyl)pyrazine-2-carboxamide find more group contributed toward acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity, and fourth positions of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines contain substituted phenyl and hetero aromatic ring responsible acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity [26]. Heteroaryl substituted compounds at 4th position it enhance the potency of the compounds when compare with

the unsubstituted or substituted aryl containing compounds. Substituted atom or group of atom must be the strong electron withdrawing nature of potent activity because it decreases electron density in the ring due to inductive effect. Fluoride and chloride substitution at fourth position of phenyl ring showed potent action because of strong electron withdrawing nature due Anti-infection Compound Library mouse to inductive effect. Substitution of fluro, chloro group at third and fourth position

of phenyl ring showed potent action when compare with nitro atom. The second position sulfur substituted derivatives most potent when compare with oxygen atoms. Among the compounds reported herein, compound 4l is arguably the most potent when compared with current therapeutic agent donepezil HCl because heteroaryl ring present at 4th position of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines it enhances the acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity ( Fig. 2 and Table 1). In summary, a series of novel 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines of biological interest were synthesized and analyzed for their structures. The libraries of compounds were prepared by using laboratory

made p-toluenesulfonic acid as an efficient catalyst when compare with Lewis acid. The importance of substitutions at the fourth positions of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines was studied toward the acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity. The acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity Inositol oxygenase data revealed that the all synthesized compounds proved to be active against acetyl and butyl cholinesterase enzymes. Almost all of the titled compounds exhibited weak, moderate, or high acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity. Compound 4l showed potent acetyl and butyl cholinesterase inhibitor activity when compare with the donepezil HCl, our present study makes it an interesting compound when compared to the current therapeutic agents and are considered the candidates to investigate further for the same. The authors wish to thank the Sunrise University for research support. Also, thank the Molecules Research Laboratory for in vitro cholinesterase enzyme inhibitor activity, Chennai, India. “
“Resveratrol (3,5,4′-trans-hydroxystilbene) is a phytoalexin and a polyphenolic compound that belongs to the stilbene family [1]. This natural occurring and multi-biofunctional chemical [2] exists in both cis- and trans- isomeric forms due to its two phenol rings linked by a styrene double bond [3].

The cooled groundwater is then re-injected into the cold well(s). During summer, this cooled water can then be re-used. This process creates a cycle of seasonal thermal energy storage. Most ATES systems operate with only small temperature differences (ΔT < 15 °C) between the warm (<20 °C) and the cold (ca. 5 °C) wells in shallow aquifers PS-341 with an ambient groundwater temperature of about 11–12 °C. Worldwide, the number of ATES systems has been continuously increasing over the last 15 years and is expected to increase further in the future. In the Netherlands, the number of ATES systems has grown from around 29 installations in 1995 to around 1800 in 2012 (Bonte,

2013). Similar growth rates are reported in other European countries like Switzerland, Sweden and Germany (Sanner et al., 2003), in China (Gao et al., 2009) and in the US (Lund and Bertani, 2010), both for ATES and associated thermal energy storage systems such as Borehole

Thermal Energy Storage (BTES) (Bayer et al., 2012, Bonte et al., 2011b, Hähnlein et al., 2013, Lund et al., 2004, Lund et al., 2011 and Rybach, 2010). In Belgium there are much less ATES systems operational, about 20 large systems (>250 kW) in 2011, but there is also a rapidly growing demand. Because of this large growth, ATES systems are expected to be installed increasingly in the vicinity of drinking water production sites and protected nature areas. This leads to concerns by environmental regulators and drinking water companies about the environmental impacts of ATES installations, such as hydrological, thermal, Dichloromethane dehalogenase chemical and microbiological impacts (Arning et al., 2006, Bonte AG 14699 et al., 2011a, Brielmann et al., 2011, Brielmann et al., 2009, Brons et al., 1991, Griffioen and Appelo, 1993, Hall et al., 2008 and Zhu et al., 2011). In addition, according to EU environmental policy, these impacts should be minimized so that no detrimental effects can occur (EU-WFD, 2000). This study presents a review of published research about the interaction between ATES and groundwater chemistry. This review is illustrated by a new hydrochemical dataset from seven ATES systems in the northern

part of Belgium (Flanders). To asses the effect of the storage of thermal energy on the groundwater chemistry a literature review was conducted. The possible impacts of ATES were divided into the effects caused by changes in temperature and the effects caused by mixing different groundwater qualities. As a result of reactions between groundwater and the surrounding aquifer material, groundwater contains a wide variety of dissolved chemical constituents in various concentrations. Temperature changes can cause alteration of groundwater chemistry as temperature plays a very important role in the solubility of minerals, reaction kinetics, oxidation of organic matter, redox processes and sorption-desorption of anions and cations (Arning et al., 2006, Brons et al.

marianae selleckchem densities compared to plots

treated at a higher mite threshold, or plots treated with regularly scheduled sprays, or in control plots. Likewise, an initial spray with azadirachtin (Aza-Direct®) when two H. armigera eggs were detected in 10 of the plant samples, followed by an additional spray only if two damaged fruits or H. armigera larvae were detected per 50 immature fruit, resulted in lower percent fruit damage and higher marketable yield compared to other threshold levels or a regular spray schedule. Although a pest management based threshold level is always better than calendar based sprays, we did not have the results for threshold levels ready when we initiated this study. In addition, there was urgency to develop an effective control method for T. marianae and H. armigera to replace the conventional sprays in the Pacific Islands. Not all growers want to follow threshold-based sprays since it is labor intensive and difficult to schedule for work. Although a binominal sampling scheme (presence: absence) would be ideal, many growers do not want to count mites and assess fruit damage in the field. Integrated GSK J4 molecular weight pest management

strategies for spider mites and fruit borer favor botanical pesticides over conventional broad-spectrum chemical pesticides due to the former’s lower toxicity, and higher safety to the environment and beneficial arthropods (Yang et al., 2010). Presently, conventional insecticides (carbaryl and malathion) are the only pesticides used by growers in this region on tomato. However, repeated use of broad-spectrum insecticides is often expensive and harmful to natural enemies, and can lead to insecticide resistance, environmental

pollution and secondary pest outbreaks (Mallet, 1989). More broadly, Inositol monophosphatase 1 biorational insecticides include botanical extracts, pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and entomopathogenic nematodes), semiochemicals, and insect growth regulators, and they have been used to control many species of pest insects (Djerassi et al., 1974, Schmutterer, 1990, Schmutterer, 1995, Davidson et al., 1991, Trdan et al., 2007 and Leng and Reddy, 2012). Insecticidal oils, including those of botanical or mineral origin, are also biorational pesticides that are used against many pest insects (Trdan et al., 2006 and Yang et al., 2010). On the other hand, most of the treatments used in the present study are cost effective and affordable by the growers (Reddy and Tangtrakulwanich, 2014). In this study, the IPM package (PSO, B. bassiana, azadirachtin and B. thuringiensis) at 15, 30, 45 and 60 DAT was the most effective treatment in reducing the damage by T. marianae and H. armigera and significantly increasing the marketable yield of tomatoes.

Several studies have shown that microspheres may have a dual role: They may be used to enhance the effect of sonothrombolysis and assist in targeted drug delivery. To date, transcranial US has mainly been developed for diagnostic purposes. Several experimental studies have been

conducted or are being undertaken to optimize US settings for sonothrombolysis. A need still exists to determine the optimal US frequency and energy so as to achieve the safest and most effective form of US for Forskolin cost sonothrombolysis. “
“Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) remains the only approved therapy for acute ischemic stroke [1] that can be administered fast and at any level emergency room equipped with a non-contrast CT scanner. Even though patients with severe strokes and proximal arterial occlusions are less likely to respond to tPA, they still do better than

Gefitinib in vitro placebo-treated patients [1]. The presence of a proximal arterial occlusion should not be viewed as an insurmountable predictor of tPA failure since nutritious recanalization can occur even with large middle cerebral (MCA) or internal carotid artery (ICA) thrombi [2] and [3]. Even if intra-arterial interventions are approved in the future for stroke treatment, it is unrealistic to expect that all patients with MCA occlusions either will reach comprehensive stroke centers in time or their risk factor profile would always make catheter intervention feasible. With bridging intravenous–intra-arterial protocols being tested, there is even further need to amplify the systemic part of reperfusion therapy so that more patients could benefit from early treatment initiation [4]. Early clinical improvement after stroke usually occurs after arterial recanalization [5], [6], [7] and [8]. The so-called “recanalization hypothesis” links the occurrence of recanalization with increase of good functional outcome and reduction of death [9], however this hypothesis has not been confirmed in a prospective clinical trial, subject of an ongoing CLOTBUST-PRO multi-center study

[10]. In the CLOTBUST trial [11], early recanalization coupled with early dramatic recovery Urease was more common among tPA treated patients who were exposed to continuous vs intermittent monitoring with pulsed wave 2 MHz TCD (25% vs 8%). This, in turn, produced a trend towards more patients recovering at 3 months to modified Ranking score 0–1 (42% vs 29%) [11]. Diagnosis of an acute intracranial occlusion, re-canalization and re-occlusion in the CLOTBUST trial was based on the thrombolysis in brain ischemia (TIBI) residual flow grading system [12]. It describes typical waveforms that identify residual flow around an arterial occlusion, and their detailed definitions were published elsewhere [13].

Cells were mounted in fluorescence mounting

medium and viewed at a LSM 510 Meta Laser Scan microscope (Zeiss, Vienna) with the following settings: 488 nm excitation wavelength using a BP 505–530 nm band-pass detection filter for AlexaFluor488 and 543 nm excitation wavelength in conjunction with a LP 560 nm long pass filter for the red channel (AlexaFluor546). After exposure, cells were rinsed IDH assay in PBS, fixed in 3.7% paraformaldehyde for 10 min at RT and washed (3 × 5 min) in PBS. Cells were permeabilized by incubation in acetone for 3 min at −20 °C and rinsed again. Cells were stained with 165 nM phalloidin AlexaFluor 488 (Invitrogen, 1:40 dilution of stock solution in methanol) for 20 min at RT in the dark, rinsed in PBS, counterstained by immersion in 1 μg/ml Hoechst 33342 (Invitrogen) in PBS for 10 min, rinsed again in PBS and mounted in fluorescence medium.

Pictures were taken using a LSM 510 Meta with 488 nm excitation wavelength using a BP 505–530 nm band-pass detection filter. The formation p38 MAPK signaling of tight junctions indicating healthy cell monolayers was studied by measuring the transepithelial electrical resistance. To follow the development of TEER cells were cultured for up to 18 days. 2 ml DMEM were added to the apical and 3 ml DMEM were added to the basal compartment for TEER measurement with a EVOM STX-2-electrode (World Precision Instruments, Berlin). Calculation of

TEER: TEER(Ω∗cm2)=Sample-bank resistance(Transwell without cells)∗Membrane area For deposition and distribution studies, solutions of 2 mg/ml and 200 μg/ml FluoSpheres (VITROCELL/PARI BOY) and 1 mg/ml (MicroSprayer) were aerosolized. A549 cells in transwells were exposed to these solutions for 1 h in the VITROCELL/PARI BOY or up to three doses in the MicroSprayer and cultured for additional 24 h. To quantify deposition and distribution rates, cells were lysed by adding 10 μl of lysis solution (one part 70% ethanol + one part Triton X100 to 500 μl distilled water) for 10 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence was read at Sorafenib chemical structure a FLUOstar optima (BMG) at 485/520 nm for fluorescein and at 584/612 nm for red FluoSpheres. Calculation of deposition: Deposition(%)=Signal sample×dilutionSignal(nebulized solution)×dilution×volume nebulized×100 To take into account a potential influence of the cell lysate, 10 μl cell lysate of non-exposed cells was also added to the stem solution sample used for aerosolization for the measurement. For the deposition of CNTs absorbance of the lysates was read at 360 nm using a SPECTRA MAX plus 384 photometer (Molecular Devices).

The non-reducing and non-denaturing environment of native PAGE allows the detection of biological activity. Periplasmic extracts containing the recombinant fusion protein was separated using 10% native PAGE gel. Then Western blot was performed PARP activity to reveal the AP activity using directly

BCIP/NBT AP substrate buffer (100 mM Tris–HCl pH 9.5, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl2, containing 0.3 g/l NBT and 0.15 g/l BCIP) onto nitrocellulose membrane. Alkaline phosphatase activity was determined using a biochemical colorimetric test. Briefly, increasing concentrations of SAG1–AP and free AP contained in induced and non-induced periplasmic extracts respectively (20–1500 ng/ml) were diluted in assay buffer (1 M diethanolamine, 0.5 mM MgCl2 at pH 9.8) and incubated with 1 mg/ml pNPP AP substrate (p-nitro-phenyl-phosphate; Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.), in 96-well ELISA plates. The enzymatic AP activity was

assayed by measuring the p-nitrophenol formed from the enzymatic hydrolysis of p-nitro-phenyl-phosphate at 405 nm using a microplate reader (Labsystems Multiskan EX, Finland). All Tofacitinib assays were conducted in duplicate. The specific activity was calculated as A405 U/μg protein. Immunoreactivity and bi-functionality of the recombinant SAG1–AP fusion protein were tested in anti-T. gondii SAG1 Mab based ELISA. Briefly, 96-well ELISA plates (Maxisorp, Nunc, Roskilde, Denmark) were coated with 100 μl/well of 100 mM carbonate–bicarbonate buffer (pH 9.6) containing 5 μg/ml anti-SAG1 Mab and incubated overnight

at 4 °C. Blocking for non-specific binding was performed for 1 h at 37 °C with PBS-T and 5% skim milk powder. The activated plates were incubated for 1 h at 37 °C with 100 μl of twofold dilutions of Org 27569 periplasmic extract containing the SAG1–AP conjugate starting from 1.5 μg/ml. Wells were then incubated with 100 μl of AP substrate (1 mg/ml pNPP diluted in 1 M diethanolamine buffer, pH 9.8, containing 0.5 mM MgCl2) for 30 min at 37 °C. The wells were washed three times with PBS-T between each intermediate step. The absorbance at 405 nm (A405 nm) was measured using a microplate reader. Background was determined by incubating the wells directly with the non-induced periplasmic extract. All assays were conducted in duplicate. Sera samples were provided by the “Laboratoire de Parasitologie Médicale, Institut Pasteur de Tunis” and were collected from pregnant women for systematic toxoplasmosis screening during their first prenatal consultation. The patient’s immune status towards toxoplasmosis and specific IgG titers for positive ones were established using the standard ELISA Platelia™ Toxo IgG kit (Product No. 72840, Bio-Rad, France). Sera samples from Toxoplasma sero-positive and sero-negative patients were diluted 1/20 in 100 mM carbonate–bicarbonate buffer (pH 9.6) and then, volumes of 100 μl/well were used to coat ELISA plates at 4 °C overnight.

The respective interval widths are 0.025 and 0.125 in the case of the frequency distributions of the aerosol optical thickness and the Ångström

exponent. Histograms of AOT(500) vary from a sharp distribution ( Figure 3c) with a modal value of 0.050 for autumn to broader distributions with a modal value of 0.075 for the spring and summer seasons ( Figures 3a, 3b). The distributions are skewed towards higher values (right-skewed). All histograms of α(440, 870) are BIBF1120 skewed towards lower values (left-skewed) ( Figures 3d–3f). The most probable respective values for spring, summer and autumn seasons are 1.375, 1.750 and 1.625. The distribution of α(440, 870) for summer is sharper than during spring and autumn conditions. GSI-IX Many papers relate aerosol optical properties, e.g. the Ångström exponent, to a type of aerosol. However, the threshold for α(440, 870) usually used to distinguish marine aerosols varies depending on the author. Kuśmierczyk-Michulec et al., 2001 and Kuśmierczyk-Michulec et al., 2002 adopted a threshold of 0.26 (i.e. α(400, 865) ≤ 0.26) for those instances when sea salt controls aerosol optical thickness, whereas Smirnov et al. (2003) applied a much higher value of the Ångström exponent (α(440, 870) ≤ 1.0) and AOT(500) ≤ 0.15 to describe pure marine aerosols. Kuśmierczyk-Michulec (2009) concluded

that an Ångström exponent < 0.5 indicates the marine aerosol type, values of α(440, 870) between 1.0 and 1.5 represent the continental aerosol type, and values > 1.5 the industrial aerosol

type. Over Gotland, α(440, 870) ≤ 1.0 only make up 20%, 8% and 32% of observations in spring, summer and autumn respectively. In autumn, Ångström exponents Ketotifen < 1 are more frequently observed (32%) than in the other seasons, which indicates a higher contribution of marine aerosols. Even though the thresholds given above are approximate, the seasonal frequency distributions of the Ångström exponent with modal values ranging from 1.375 to 1.750 ( Figure 3) clearly indicate the high contribution of the mixed continental-industrial type of aerosols in the Baltic atmosphere throughout the year, but especially in summer. On the basis of the same Gotland AERONET station dataset from the period 1999–2001, Carlund et al. (2005) concluded that normally, the atmosphere over Gotland could be considered clear, with a daily median value of AOT(500) of about 0.08. The median value of α(440, 870) was 1.37, indicating that the dominant aerosol was more of a continental than of a pure marine type. Means of the seasonal distributions of AOT(500) and α(440, 870) are given in Table 2. The histograms of AOT(500) and α(440, 870) are skewed. Their longer tails contain extreme cases, with AOT(500) several times higher and α(440, 870) several times lower than the respective modal values.

In a mountainous region like the Hornsund area, mountains additionally limit the horizontal path of photons, especially when the cloud base is below the mountain

peaks. This attenuates the irradiance transmittance, both the increase over the fjord waters and the decrease over the land, which is shown in Figure 7 for the cases of h = 200 m and h = 1800 m (τ = 12, spring albedo pattern, ϑ = 53° and λ = 469 nm). For h = 200 m, the irradiance transmittance over the fjord nearly reaches its ‘oceanic’ value within 2 km from a straight NU7441 shore, while for h = 1800 m the ocean value is never reached over the ca 10-km-wide fjord. The transmittance enhancement over the near-shore plots ( Figure 8a) is 1.5–3 times lower for h = 200 m than it is for h = 1800 m. ΔTE drops 7 times with diminishing cloud layer height in plot 11 (the fjord mouth), and 3 times over the whole fjord. The radiative conditions are more local for lower clouds, and dark water diminishes irradiance

transmittance at the coast. Hence, irradiance transmittance at the station drops with increasing cloud base height. The transmittance enhancement over the fjord due to 3D effects (photon transport) weakens in the infrared. It is practically negligible for λ = 1640 nm (Figure 8b), the absolute value of ΔTE is lower than 0.005 for all the plots. In this spectral channel the surface albedo is almost uniform and very low (< 0.11). Because the 3D effects depend strongly on wavelength, they must modify the irradiance spectrum on the fjord surface. The behaviour of the ratio TE (λ = 469 nm)/TE (λ = 858 nm) with increasing τ Pexidartinib cell line is presented in Figure 9. The differences in the ratio between the fjord and the ocean are the highest for inner fjords (plots 5 and and they range from 0.08 for a cloudless sky to 0.66 for clouds of τ = 30 (h = 1 km, spring albedo pattern, ϑ = 53° and Clomifene λ = 469 nm). The respective ratio differences for the whole fjord are 0.05 and

0.29. The variability of TE (λ = 469 nm)/TE (λ = 858 nm) over the fjord are caused mainly by a decrease in snow albedo with the wavelength between λ = 468 nm and 858 nm. All the runs/simulations discussed so far represent radiative transfer through water clouds. So as to simulate 3D effects under ice clouds, the asymmetry factor g was changed from 0.865 used for water cloud simulations with λ = 469 nm to 0.75 (e.g. Zhang et al., 2002, Baran et al., 2005 and Fu, 2007). An ‘ice cloud’ run was performed for the spring albedo pattern, τ = 12, ϑ = 53°, h = 1 km and λ = 469 nm (not shown in the figure). It was found that for ice clouds the 3D effect is stronger than for water clouds of the same height and optical thickness. Lowering factor g increases cloud albedo and decreases its transmittance. Thus it reduces TE but increases ΔTrelE from 19% for g = 0.865 to 25% for g = 0.75 for the whole fjord, and from 40% to 55% for the inner fjords (plots 5 and 8).