Net samples were preserved immediately after collection in a 4% borax-buffered formaldehyde-seawater solution. A total of 245 samples from 24 stations were analysed. The crustacean zooplankton was identified in the laboratory under a stereoscopic microscope. Representatives of taxa belonging to Copepoda, Cladocera and Cirripedia, and the developmental stages (nauplii, copepodites I–V, mature males

and females) were identified. The epizoic and parasitic protozoans on crustaceans were also identified, and the degree of infestation and the location of protozoans on various body parts were investigated. Three different ranges of infestation FK228 cost were arbitrarily distinguished: up to 13, from 13 to 12, and more than 12 the body surface. Analysis of the plankton material revealed the presence of Copepoda (Calanoida: Acartia longiremis  , Acartia bifilosa  , Acartia

tonsa  , Temora longicornis  , see more Centropages hamatus  , Eurytemora   sp. Pseudocalanus   sp. and representatives of Harpacticoida – typical zoobenthic copepods), Cladocera (Bosmina   sp. Evadne nordmanii  , Pleopsis polyphemoides  , Podon   sp. and freshwater organisms) and Cirripedia larvae (Balanus improvisus  ). The parasites attached to the crustacean bodies were classified as the genus Ellobiopsis   (Myzozoa, Ellobiopsida) ( Figures 1A–C). The epizoic protozoans observed on crustaceans of the Gulf of Gdańsk belong to Peritricha (Vorticellidae). tuclazepam Ciliated epibionts were divided into two categories: Peritricha type I – individual organisms or tufts of organisms (like the genus Vorticella  ) and Peritricha type II – clearly branched colonies (like the genus

Zoothamnium  ) ( Figure 1D–F). Such discrimination was introduced owing to the deformation of the body of organisms observed in the preserved material. Epibionts and parasites were noted on various crustacean taxa.Calanoida (Copepoda) overgrown with ciliated Protozoa (Peritricha types I and II) were observed, as were body deformations related to the presence of the parasite Ellobiopsis   ( Figure 1A, D, E) ( Table 2 and Table 3). These organisms were found at all research stations and in all research periods, and constituted from 4% (2006) to 16% (1998) of all Copepoda ( Table 2). The prevalence of Peritricha type II was from 0.8% to 13% of the total population of each taxa (max. infestation in Acartia   spp. in 1998), and that of Ellobiopsis   was 2–11% (max. infestation in Temora longicornis   in 1999). Representatives of Peritricha type I (cf. Vorticella  ) were less frequently noted on copepods – 0.1–9.2% of the population were infested ( Table 2). The dominant taxa of Copepoda of the Gulf of Gdańsk were the most commonly attacked ( Table 3) – Acartia   spp. (up to 54% of all infested calanoids), Temora longicornis   (26–49% of all infested calanoids) and Centropages hamatus   (10.5–13% of all infested calanoids).

Hence, a more phenomological approach is usually applied to classify wave shape (e.g., elevated, leading depressed, N-wave etc). In the context of previous work, I2I2 has been evaluated numerically but not experimentally (e.g., Klettner and Eames, 2012). In this study it is proposed to obtain experimental measures of I2I2. The main purpose of this paper is to describe a new experimental study that analyses the correlation between runup and wave shape, characterised in terms of energy, amplitude, and wavelength.

This experimental methodology is described in Section 3. This is followed by a comprehensive description of the statistical tools used to analyse the datasets and explore the dependence of Sirolimus purchase runup on wavelength and shape. Within this study it is argued that the submerged beach length is a more appropriate parameter than water depth

for the normalisation of the wavelength for wave classification – as also noted in the theoretical work from Madsen and Schaffer (2010), prior to the analysis and determination of runup regimes. Such a parameter provides an indication of the level of interaction of the wave with the beach. Indeed, processes such as shoaling, reflections, selleck inhibitor and relative bottom friction will be affected by the relative length of the wave, therefore it is expected that the dynamics of runup will also be. The outcomes of the experimental runup study, in terms of empirical closures, are described in Section 4 along with a supporting physical explanation of the correlation groups. Conclusions are drawn in Section 5. Early studies attempted

to find a relationship between runup, wave height and wavelength for periodic waves incident on a beach (Kaplan, 1955, Shuto, 1967 and Togashi, 1981), but no consistent trend developed, as highlighted by Synolakis (1986). The runup of propagating waves has been investigated analytically and numerically by using the momentum equations (Carrier and Greenspan, 1958, Kobayashi et al., 1990 and Zelt, 1991), and also in the laboratory. The most widely used runup relationships found in the literature (Eqs. (2)–(6)), are listed in Table 1. These studies focus specifically on run up over impermeable beds and are discussed in greater detail below. In this paper, h STK38   refers to water depth, H   refers to the wave height (trough-to-peak), and cotβcotβ refers to the slope of the beach ( Fig. 1). Most runup studies have considered a single positively elevated wave running-up a beach with a constant slope, and have looked at the influence of wave amplitude on runup. This is because many of these waves are weakly dispersive and do not significantly change shape as they propagate along a flume to the beach. The experimental waves generated in past studies tend to resemble solitary waves, are unidirectional, and propagate over a constant depth region.

He is internationally recognized as one of the most influential students of aphasia of all times. As fully appropriate for someone who would make of language his primary, lifelong interest, Luigi’s early background was multilingual. He came from a Genoese family, but was born in French-speaking PARP inhibitor Montecarlo, and was educated in Italy, in the United States and in Brazil. He graduated in Medicine in 1959 with a thesis on aphasia at the University of Milan, under the supervision of Ennio De Renzi, and went on to study neurology there. From then on Milan remained his home, with some intermissions in Paris,

where he worked with Francois Lhermitte at the Centre du Langage of La Salpetriere, and in Boston, where he started a lifelong collaboration and friendship with Norman Geschwind and Deepak Pandya. He was one of the first oversea members of the Academy of Aphasia, and one of the original driving forces behind the International Neuropsychological Symposium. In the

eighties he became Director of the Neurological Department of the University of Brescia Medical School, a position he held until his retirement. If one has to choose among Luigi’s scientific achievements, the first mention is PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor probably deserved by the Token test. The principles of the test and some early findings were communicated in the first post-war joint meeting of the British and Italian neurological societies, and were then published with Ennio de Renzi in a paper in Brain (1962), which has been cited more than 1200 times.

Additional, fundamental contributions are the language rehabilitation studies, the fruits of a long standing collaboration with Anna Basso and Erminio Capitani, and the anatomical papers reporting his work in Deepak Pandya’s Lab in Boston. Luigi was very amused by the introduction of the eponym Vignolo’s syndrome by one of his mentors, Arthur Benton, to designate the presence of two Gerstmann’s syndrome deficits (agraphia and acalculia) in combination with anomia and constructional apraxia (1992). Luigi has been a great mentor, even if he did not approve the academic use of Orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase the term (too “ancien régime” for his taste). He trained many students during his long career, and to many of them he transmitted his passionate interest for language and its disorders. The trademark comment about him, both from old friends and occasional acquaintances, was always “a true gentleman” (“un vero signore” in Italian). He enjoyed art, in particular music, was deeply involved in contemporary affairs and in politics, and was a citizen of the world. His wisdom and knowledge, his humour and kindness will be badly missed by many. Luigi Vignolo (centre) pictured with friends and colleagues at his retirement party in Lerici, Italy, in September 2005.

Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted

as: • of special interest “
“Performing reaction sequences in one pot in a sequential or even simultaneous fashion avoids time-consuming or yield-reducing isolation and purification of the intermediates [1 and 2]; as a consequence the amount of chemicals/solvents required for extraction/purification of intermediates is minimised leading to an improved E factor [3]. Cascades involving reduction selleck kinase inhibitor as well as oxidation steps are still a challenge due to the diverging reaction conditions. Since in living cells oxidation and reduction processes are performed simultaneously, enzymes are probably the perfect catalysts to be exploited for synthetic redox cascade applications [4]. In this review, artificial cascades involving an oxidation step followed by a reduction step, or vice versa, will be discussed, whereby at least one redox step is catalysed by an enzyme. The focus is on cascades published during the past 4 years. Cascades employing fermenting cells or involving in vivo metabolism will not be discussed as well as concepts for cofactor/cosubstrate recycling; furthermore, cascades involving the catalase-promoted disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide are out of scope. The easiest approach to performing such

redox cascades is to run the first redox reaction Beta adrenergic receptor kinase until completion and then start the second step by adding the required reagents; thus, the two steps are separated by selleck chemicals llc time but performed in the same pot. More challenging is to run the two redox reactions at the same time, thus simultaneously in one pot. Here two cases can be distinguished: The simpler case is that the oxidation and the reduction steps are working independently of each other; thus, reagents for the oxidation step as well as for the reduction step are required. The more demanding case is that the oxidation and reduction steps are interconnected: it would

be desirable that the formal electrons gained in the oxidation step are consumed in the reduction step. This represents a redox neutral cascade; thus, in an ideal case no additional reducing or oxidising agents are required. Consequently, the review was subdivided into the following subsections (Figure 1): (1a) simultaneous redox neutral oxidation–reduction cascades, (1b) simultaneous independent redox cascades in one pot and (2) subsequent oxidation–reduction cascades performed in one pot but separated by time. The (bio)catalysts working in concert in simultaneous oxidation–reduction cascades can be regarded as an interactive catalyst network. In the special case of redox neutral cascades, it represents an interconnected catalyst network.

The spatial similarity between Bleomycin order the submitted and reference expert prostate

contours was assessed using a Dice’s coefficient (9). The median prostate volume was 33.4 cm3 (range, 19.4–70.1 cm3). The median %V100, %D90, and %V150 were 91.1% (range, 45.5–99.8%), 101.7% (range, 59.6–145.9%), and 53.9% (range, 15.7–88.4%), respectively. Low gland coverage was observed in some patients: 27 (39%) were noted to have a D90 lower than 100% of PD; and of those, 12 (17%) had a D90 lower than 80% of the PD. For this data set, there was no correlation between D90 coverage and prostate volume, number of seeds, or total implanted activity. In addition, there were no apparent differences in D90 dose coverage according to the different institutional strata. The median V100 for the rectum was 0.3 cc see more (range, 0–4.3 cc). The median D2cc rectum doses were 64.3% (range, 27.3–126.1%). No differences were observed in terms of dosimetric outcomes according to the institutional strata. The Dice’s coefficient was used to compare the submitted and reviewed prostate volumes, as shown in Fig. 1. The coefficient measures the intersection between the two volumes to be compared; thus a Dice’s coefficient of 1 means that the two volumes can be superimposed and are equal. The average Dice’s coefficient for the prostate volumes

in these patients was 0.83 (range, 0.75–0.92) with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.04. The median and SD of %D90 for the submitted and reviewed scans were 101.5% (SD, 17.6%) and 101.1% (SD, 18.5%), respectively ( Fig. 2). We define D90 concordance to be good if the D90 value reported by the treating institution is within 10% of the reevaluated D90. Good D90 concordance

was observed in 44 of the 69 cases. The median and SD of %V100 for the Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase submitted and reviewed scans were 88.1% (SD, 10.7%) and 87.9% (SD, 11.2%), respectively. For the submitted contours and calculated doses, there were 32 patients (46%) with D90 lower than 100% of the PD and 18 patients (26%) with D90 lower than 90% of the PD. When these contours were centrally reviewed and doses were recalculated, 28 patients (41%) were noted to have a D90 lower than 100% of the PD and 17 patients (25%) had a D90 lower than 90% of the PD. Figure 3 illustrates the similarities between the submitted and reviewer evaluations for %V150. As demonstrated in Fig. 3, 4% and 7% of patients had V150 greater than 80%, suggestive of a “hot implant” based on the submitted and centrally reviewed dose calculations. The average Dice’s coefficient for the rectal volumes in these patients was 0.8369 (range, 0.7533–0.9165) with an SD of 0.0431. The median and SD of rectal D2cc as a percentage of the PD was 62.7% (SD, 18.1) and 64.3% (SD, 20.3) for the submitted and reviewed scans, respectively ( Fig. 4). When all the above-mentioned analyses were performed excluding the 10 test cases, the findings were found to be not significantly different (data not shown).

intracellular) BP concentration. Interestingly, the anti-mutagenic effects of BR and BV were most strongly dependent on the bacterial BP absorption exclusively in strain TA98 ( Table 2). An entirely novel observation was also made in that the obtained HPLC spectra (not shown) suggest appearance of BR in plates supplemented with BV, which could imply biliverdin reductase activity in S. typhimurium. The ratio of BV to BR (BV:BR) bacterial

concentrations calculated from HPLC chromatograms (at 1 μmol/plate BV) approximated 4.4:1 in TA98 and 9.6:1 in TA102. This study is the first to report on bacterial BP absorption and its relationship with observed anti-mutagenic effects. When exposed to mutagens, extracellular (plate) BP concentrations negatively Veliparib clinical trial correlated with genotoxicity. Furthermore, testing in TA98 revealed

that BV and BR absorption was more strongly related with anti-mutagenesis, when compared to the anti-mutagenic effect relative to plate concentrations. Previous reports refer to the ability of BPs to act in an anti-oxidant and anti-genotoxic manner in vitro (Asad et al., 2001 and Bulmer et al., 2007) and in vivo (Boon et al., 2012 and Horsfall et al., 2011). Vastly unclear to date however, are the underlying mechanisms of anti-genoxic action. In this context mainly electron scavenging or hydrogen donating capacities (MacLean et al., 2008) and structural interactions between BPs and mutagens (Hayatsu, 1995) are discussed. However, data

on cellular compound absorption Pexidartinib chemical structure are lacking and so far only one recent report on enzymatic BRDT reduction in bacteria (Konickova et al., 2012) exists. Therefore, we explored whether bacterial BP absorption was more closely related to anti-mutagenesis compared to extracellular BP concentrations around S. typhimurium experiencing Low-density-lipoprotein receptor kinase genotoxic stress. In this study, physiologically relevant concentrations of BPs were tested. Un-/conjugated BR is found in the blood, the liver, the intestine (where about 70% are recycled via the enterohepatic cycle), and the urinary tract. In these compartments BR is further metabolised, recycled and/or excreted (Klatskin, 1961). The liver and gut, which are sites of BP accumulation, are at particular risk of genotoxicity due to the absorption, metabolism (Guengerich, 2000 and Turesky et al., 2002) and excretion of mutagens. The abundance of BPs within these organs suggests BPs could exert physiological protection against DNA damage specifically at these sites. Interestingly, BR and BV absorption strongly protected against frame-shift mutation in the TA98 strain. This mutation represents an important mechanism of pathogenesis in gastric and colorectal cancers ( Kim et al., 2010).

We have found a small but statistically significant association between invasive pneumococcal disease and viral infections after accounting for the common seasonality of the infections. Influenza-attributable IPD accounted for between 0 and 9.2% of cases of IPD according

to age, meteorological variable and regression method used. In the additive negative binomial regression model, 7.5% of IPD is attributable to influenza, for all ages, when adjusted by average temperature (best-fitting model). The click here percentage of RSV-associated IPD accounted for between 1.5 and 25% of all IPD cases, with 3.5% of IPD attributable to RSV, for all ages, when adjusted by average temperature in the additive negative binomial regression model. Our results for influenza are in line with those of other studies applying similar techniques. They found influenza was associated with 6–10%11 and 5–6%17 of IPD cases. Our study is the first, to our knowledge, to estimate the IPD cases attributable to both influenza and RSV, in different age groups and including average temperature and hours of sunshine to allow for the seasonal characteristics of the data. Our study has looked in more detail at the influence of age in associations between IPD and viral infections.

We found that for influenza the attributable percentage of IPD cases is lowest in the 0–4 years group for both meteorological variables (∼0%) and highest in the over 65 years group when adjusted by temperature (3.2–4.8%, dependent on the model) or selleck highest in the 5–14 years group when adjusted by hours of sunshine (5.7–6.9%). For RSV, the attributable percentage of IPD cases was again lowest in the 0–4 years group for both meteorological variables (1–2%) and highest in the 15–64 years group for both variables (14.5–25%). In previous studies, evidence of associations between dipyridamole influenza and IPD has been more consistently reported in adults11, 13, 14 and 17 compared to children where the associations are weaker or non-existent.4, 5, 12, 15 and 16 We also found that the associations between IPD and influenza were stronger in older

age groups when adjusted by temperature. This was not the case when adjusted by hours of sunshine. However the data on hours of sunshine is only available at monthly time periods as opposed to weekly temperature measurements and the association between IPD and temperature was found to be stronger than that between IPD and sunshine (where all data was converted to monthly time periods). In the case of IPD and RSV in children, most studies4, 5 and 18 have found the association between IPD and RSV was stronger than that of IPD and influenza, with only Talbot et al.15 finding the reverse result. Our study also estimates that more cases of IPD in children are attributable to RSV than influenza; however the strength of the statistical evidence of our results for influenza is weak. We also found a similar result for adults.

Our findings show

synergistic increases in the expression of GFAP and AQP4 in some regions depending on the time course Venetoclax price after envenomation. It was found that GFAP and AQP4 increased in parallel in the WM of P14 animals and in the ML of 8-week-old animals 24 h after envenoming (see Figs. 2 and 3) and in the GL of 8-week-old PNV-treated animals after 2 h (Fig. 4). At other time points there was a nonparallel upregulation of either AQP4 or GFAP. PNV induced upregulation of GFAP in protoplasmic astrocytes of ML (named Bergmann glia) at all time-points and in the velate protoplasmic astrocytes of GL at 2 and 5 h and in astrocytes of PL of P14 rats at 24 h. As per AQP4, the increase in GFAP expression was confined to protoplasmic astrocytes of the gray matter, except within the PL, in adults. Considering that PNV effects are transient, do not cause neuronal death and demyelination (Le Sueur et al., 2003, 2004), we suggest that increases in GFAP expression here observed is a mechanism for neuroprotection (Li et al., 2008). In this particular, the increased expression of AQP4 in neonate rats without a concomitant increase in that of GFAP could be a compensatory mechanism for protection

against PNV transient toxicity. Nevertheless, it remains unclear why upregulation of GFAP paralleled with upregulation of AQP4 in the WM of neonates (24 h), in the ML of adults (24 h) and in the GL OSBPL9 of adults (2 h). However, such findings are interesting, because PR-171 cost it is known that while only one or two processes of protoplasmic astrocytes have contact with microvessels or pia, the vast majority of

them are peri-synaptic, both in pre- and post-synaptic compartments, and hence in close contact with neuronal communication in the gray matter. Recent reviews report that vascular and synaptic endfeet of astrocytes exhibit segregation of intramembranous proteins, creating autonomous loci which contain different transporters, channels, receptors, or different densities of them (see Wang and Bordey, 2008; Kimelberg, 2010; Kimelberg and Nedergaard, 2010 for review). This type of domain organization of the glia membrane allows differential dynamics in neural signal transduction, blood flow and fluid homeostasis ( Reichenbach et al., 2010). Whether the differential modulation undergone by AQP4 and GFAP throughout the cerebellar parenchyma here seen would be associated with the compartment’s functional specificity in relation to astrocyte:neural interactions and heterogeneity of the types of neurons and astrocytes ( Matyash and Kettenmann, 2010) is unknown.

On the other hand, vit E (low dose) and Se (Low dose) elicited slight significant decrease in GPx activity

as compared to normal control group. Meanwhile, MSG (high dose) followed by administration of either vit E (high or low dose) or followed by Se at high or low dose elicited slight decrease in GPx activity with respect to normal control group. At the end of the 30 days of treatment, the spermatogenic cells in the seminiferous tubules appeared to have normal histological structure in control group. Testis of the male control treated rats appears to be oval in shape and showed normal seminiferous tubules – surrounded by few edematous stroma containing NVP-BEZ235 small groups of leydig cells (Fig. 1A). In the MSG-treated group with high dose, seminiferous tubules were observed

filled by spermatogenic cells with few sperm formation and showing seminiferous tubules filled by spermatogonia only with few sperm formation (Fig. 1B and1 C). Meanwhile, in group 3 (vit E treated group PLX4032 in vivo high dose) there were testicular tissues showed normal seminiferous tubules surrounded by small groups of leydig cells (Fig. 1D). On the other hand, in group 4 (Se-treated group high dose), testicular tissues showed seminiferous tubules lined by layers of spermatogenic cells up to sperm formation (Fig. 1E). While, group 5 treated with (MSG + vit E at high dose) showed seminiferous tubules lined by few layers of spermetrogenic cells and few sperms (Fig. 1F). DNA Damage inhibitor While group 6 treated with (MSG + Se at high dose) showed seminiferous tubules lined by few layers of spermetrogenic cells and moderate number sperms (Fig. 1G). Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 Lipid peroxidation is one of the main processes of oxidative damage, which plays a critical role in the toxicity of many xenobiotic (Ognjanović et al., 2010). It was evaluated by assessment of TBARS [36]. In the present study, TBARS levels also

increased in the MSG treated rats. It is known that MSG produces reactive oxygen species. Therefore, antioxidant enzymes could play a crucial role on MSG toxicity [37]. Our results was in harmony with Tezcan et al. [38] who declared that MDA is one of the final decomposition of lipid peroxidation and it is also formed as a product of the cyclooxygenase reaction in prostaglandin metabolism and this assure our finding who conclude the presence of oxidative stress in rats treated with MSG in which there was high level of MDA. In agreement with previous study, the susceptibility of spermatozoa to oxidative stress as a consequence of the abundance of unsaturated fatty acids in the sperm plasma membrane and a very low concentration of cytoplasmic antioxidants is well known [39]. We demonstrated that the major reason for damage of testicular tissues is the increasing level of lipid peroxidation and these findings was in parallel with Aitken et al.

1990) cells

and diatoms with higher intracellular pigment concentrations owing to nutrient enrichment. Another reason could be the relative contribution of non-photosynthetic pigments to total absorption ( Bricaud et al., 1995, Ciotti et al., 1999 and Vijayan et al., 2009). These observations are supported by reports that nutrient enrichment leads to an increased dominance of large phytoplankton ( Chisholm 1992) and that the increase in cellular Chl a concentration with high nutrient availability can lead to a decrease in a*ph(λ) ( Sosik & Cobimetinib in vivo Mitchell 1995). The green Noctiluca bloom causes a greenish discolouration as it harbours a green, flagellated endosymbiont Pedinomonas noctilucae (Subramanian) Sweeny ( Ostroumoff, 1924 and Sweeney, 1971). Apart from Chl a, the major pigments of P. noctilucae are

neoxanthin, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, lutein and Chl b ( Furuya & Lirdwitayaprasit Sunitinib mouse 2000). The inverse relation between a*ph(440) and Chl a can also be attributed to the higher ratios of non-photosynthetic pigments like neoxanthin, zeaxanthin and lutein to TChl a. Compared to the EW transect, the surface Chl a concentrations of the NS transect were generally lower (< 5 μg l− 1) and a*ph(λ) values were high (≥ 0.003 m2(mg TChl a)− 1) for most of the stations. The NS transect stations had high ratios of zeaxanthin/TChl a, suggestive of a high contribution of smaller algal groups like Cyanophyceae, which absorb mainly in the blue region ( Bidigare et al. 1989b). The prominent secondary peak observed at 480 nm

at the surface at stns. MB4 and MB5 ( Figure 8) was due primarily to zeaxanthin ( Moore et al. 1995). In the EW transect there was a predominance of dinoflagellates and diatoms, as evidenced by the HPLC pigment signatures. There were prominent absorption peaks and shoulders due to Chl a (672 and 438 nm), Chl c (630–462 nm), peridinin (535–540 nm) and diadinoxanthin (495 nm) ( Halldal, 1970, Prézelin et al., 1976 and Yentsch, 1980). Similar characteristic peaks of absorption spectra had been reported earlier by Balch & Haxo (1984) for Noctiluca miliaris Suriray during bloom conditions. The zeaxanthin pigment, which has a high Fludarabine absorption between 454 and 480 nm, had a linear relation with a*ph(440). The secondary peak in the blue and red region may be due to the enhanced contribution of Chl b ( Bidigare et al. 1990), which in the present study is ascribed to the abundance of chlorophytes. As the numerical abundance of chlorophytes was low, based on the pigment signatures of P. noctilucae ( Furuya & Lirdwitayaprasit 2000), the Chl a allocated to chlorophytes were ascribed to P. noctilucae ( Furuya et al. 2006). A small peak found at 462 nm at stn. MB9 is ascribable to Chl c ( Barlow & Lamont 2012). At stns. MB5 and MB12 the surface NPP index (≥ 0.6) is the cumulative contribution of high ratios of photoprotective pigments like zeaxanthin, lutein and neoxanthin to TChl a.